 1 teas general
 2 herbal teas
 3 PLANTS FOR MEDICINE
 4 HERBS FOR AILMENTS
 5 HOW TO PREPARE HERBS FOR MEDICINE
 6 HEALTH PRINCIPLES TO FOLLOW
 7 DESIRABLE FOODS
 8 HERBS AND SPICES
 9 Introduction to the Anthophyta, the flowering plants
 10 MODERN MEDICINE rooted in ancient times
 11 Mushrooms
 12 Weeds
 13 Index of Weeds Sorted by BOTANICAL names
 14 List of poisonous plants
 15 Cat's claw
 16 Camphor

\1 teas general

Tea is made from the bright green leaves of a bushy evergreen that can grow to 30 feet. They're leaves are picked 20-30 times a year and can be productive for a century. There are three types of real tea: Green, black, oolong, all contain potent antioxidant chemicals.

Green tea is unfermented because of steam treatment which deactivates its enzymes that causes fermentation. it is rich in polyphenols and fluoride and retards tooth decay. Boost immune system and combats some kinds of cancers. Anti oxyident in green tea is 25x more than vitamin E and 100x more than vitamin C. 9/97. In 2/01 a study in the New England Jrnl of Med say that green tea in Japan (due to its high tea consumption and stomach cancer rate) found no beneficial effect on stomach cancer.

Black tea are fully fermented or oxidized like Ceylon and Darjeeling. Pekoe is also a black tea that is flavored with orange peel.

Oolong tea is partially fermentated; Effective in reducing cholesterol levels and high blood pressure. Good after a fatty meal. Several tests including dental scientists (Wash Univ/St Louis) 83/84 shows that black tea reduces cavities and plaque buildup (DENTISTRY 4/86).

Reserchers have discovered that a compound (ECGC) in green tea prevents cancer by inhibiting the activity of the enzyme urokinase which disolves the protein in living cells making room for cancer tumor material and the blood vessels that feed it. NYT 6/05/97

Camelia Sinensis, A Humble Leaf, A Noble Drink. The tea plant is an evergreen shrub that grows mainly in tropical or sub-tropical regions. In its wild state, the tea plant can attain a ht of over 10m; when cultivated, regular pruning keeps it at about 90cm, a ht convenient for harvesting. The buds and young shoots are covered with a fine down, hence the term pekoe (Pak-Ho=hair). It was long believed that the green teas and the black teas came from diff plants. However, in 1843 botanist and adventurer Robert Fortune was able to prove that both teas were made from leaves of the Camelia Sinensis plant, the diff lying in whether or not the leaves were left to oxidize through contact with the air. The three major types of tea are: the black teas (fermented), the oolongs (semifermented) and the green teas (not fermented). Quality of the tea produced is determined by the season in which the tea is harvested, how it is harvested, and the way the leaves are treated. The first, or spring harvest offers up the finest and most tender leaves. The second, in the summer, and the third, in the fall produce more abundant but less delicate crops. Tea plantations are usually set out on the slopes of a hill where drainage is good. Although tea plants need constant moisture, waterlogged soil can lead to rotting of the roots. Some large trees are left growing on the plantation site; their leaves filter the burning noon sun and then act as a natural fertilizer when they fall to the ground. The tea harvest today is generally mechanized, but traditionally, this was considered women's work, as women were judged more skilful at such a delicate task. A tea harvester gathers on average 30 to 35 kg of leaves every day, or 40 000 to 60 000 shoots. The younger the leaves of the tea plant, the more tender they are and the higher their quality. The choicest pick is the bud (pekoe) and the first two leaves. The quality of the tea, as well as the price for which it can be sold, diminish as more of the large, tough, mature leaves are added. It is up to the plantation owner or manager to decide whether quality or quantity will predominate in production. World market prices will play a key role in this decision, as will the advice of the tea broker. Regular pruning and cutting back every three years keep the tea plants at about 90 cm, a comfortable height for plucking. Pruning both encourages new growth, and forces the new shoots to develop horizontally to the top of the plant, creating what is known as the plucking table. Long bamboo sticks serve as visual cues for the tea pickers, showing the level below which the leaves must not be harvested. This promotes regrowth and avoids the accidental plucking of the mature, strong-tasting leaves that would produce a coarse, mediocre harvest.

Black and green teas are second only to water as the most common drink in the world. Now, a new study in the Netherlands has found that drinking either kind of tea with or without milk raises the level of antioxidants in the blood. And previous research findings suggest that antioxidants help guard against heart disease. Investigators found that phytochemicals found in tea in the form of flavonoids specifically catechins in green tea and thearubigins and theaflavins in black tea seem to be powerful antioxidants. Their report is published in the current European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. "At this point, we're looking at foods to discover what other healthful properties they have, and we know about fiber and vitamins but this whole area of phytochemicals is new," said Chris Rosenbloom, nutritionist and spokesperson for the American Dietetic Association. "And with tea which we've been using for centuries there may be something there that is beneficial." Dr Rianne Leenen and colleagues at the Unilever Nutrition Centre in Vlaardingen looked at the effect of drinking tea in 21 volunteers recruited by newspaper ads in the Netherlands. Comprised of 10 men and 11 women, the subjects were healthy nonsmokers between the ages of 18 and 70. Other than an overnight fast prior to beginning the study, the participants were asked to maintain their normal daily physical routine and eating habits. Each subject was given a single dose of tea equivalent to three cups once daily for 6 days. The tea used was either green tea, green tea with full-fat milk, black tea, or black tea with full-fat milk. Some participants were given mineral water or mineral water with milk to measure for the 'placebo' effect. Blood samples were taken every 30 mins for 2 hours after consuming the tea. The researchers measured the amount of plasma antioxidant activity at each interval to note any increases due to the drinking of any of the versions of tea offered. Leenen and colleagues found that regardless of whether or not milk was present in the tea, there was a significant increase in antioxidant levels with all forms of tea, with levels being 1.5 times higher when consuming green tea as compared to black tea. In particular, the rise in plasma catechins was 5 times higher after ingesting green tea than black tea. Black tea is more commonly consumed in the United States and Europe, while green tea is more commonly consumed in Asia and the Middle East. In an interview with Reuters Health, Rosenbloom cautioned that although the study news was good it was not yet clear how strong the benefits will prove to be. "We know that teas can increase antioxidants in our blood," she said, "but what that does to halt development of diseases is unknown. It's certainly good that tea has these substances, and we can enjoy tea." However, Rosenbloom added that as with all late-breaking reports of medical benefits being attached to any one food or drug, consumers need to be warned that the consumption of any one item on its own will not alter a person's health for the better if other bad habits persist. "It's important that consumers put this in light of everything else that we know about health," she said. "For exam, if you drink three cups of tea a day and you smoke three packs of butts a day and get no exercise, you're probably not going to reap the benefits." European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2000;54:87-92.

Coffee lovers, take heed. For the sake of your health, you might consider switching at least some of those daily cups of java for tea. Not herbal tea but "real" tea -green tea, black tea, Chinese tea, fruit-flavored tea, with or without caffeine, lemon, milk or sugar. As long as the leaves come from the plant Camellia sinensis, tea will contain potent antioxidant chemicals that have been linked to protection against major diseases like cancer and heart disease. Even the caffeine in tea may be somewhat beneficial, emerging evidence suggests. The popularity of tea in Japan and China may partly explain why heart disease rates are so much lower in the Far East than in Western countries. The Truths of Tea There are three types of real tea: green, black and oolong. Green tea, which is most popular in Japan and China, has in recent years found a small but growing following here as word about its potential health benefits has leaked out. It is the least processed of all the teas, made by quickly steaming or heating the leaves of Camellia sinensis. Black tea, by far the most popular in Western countries and India, is prepared by exposing tea leaves to air. That exposure causes oxidation, which turns them a deep brown and intensifies their flavor. The leaves are then crushed. According to Dr. Gary Beecher, food chemist with the United States Department of Agriculture, black tea contains as much of the protective chemicals as green tea, though the form may differ. Oolong is between the two: more processed than green tea but less so than black tea. It is exposed to heat, light and crushing for less time than black tea. Herbal teas, on the other hand, come from a wide variety of plants other than the tea plant and may include roots and flowers as well as leaves. Most herbal teas do not possess the antioxidant properties of real tea, although they may contain certain other biologically active compounds. A few also contain caffeine. Contrary to common belief, green tea has as much caffeine as black tea, though all teas have less caffeine than drip-brewed coffee. A typical eight-ounce cup of tea prepared from one tea bag brewed for three to five minutes contains 40 milligrams of caffeine, compared with 100 milligrams in a cup of brewed coffee. The caffeine content of tea can range from 20 to 90 milligrams a cup, depending on the blend of tea leaves, method of preparation and length of brewing time, whereas a cup of coffee may contain from 60 to 180 milligrams of caffeine. Decaffeinated tea, like decaffeinated coffee, has about 4 milligrams of caffeine per cup. Instant teas and prepared iced teas, which can be purchased with or without caffeine, may be too highly processed to contain much of the protective chemicals. Throughout the 1990's researchers exploring the health effects of tea have gradually accumulated highly suggestive, though not definitive, evidence for tea's ability to prevent or ameliorate several common serious diseases. Making It Healthy Most of the presumed health effects are related to polyphenols, chemicals that act as antioxidants, preventing cell damage caused by highly reactive molecules called free radicals. The polyphenols in tea, especially green tea, are more potent antioxidants than well-known antioxidants like vitamins C and E, experts say. The bulk of evidence for tea's health benefits comes from studies in animals that were treated with amounts of tea polyphenols equivalent to what might be consumed by a regular tea drinker. For example, in a study published in April, a research team from Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine added green tea polyphenols to the drinking water of 18 mice and none to the water of 18 other mice. All the animals were then injected with a substance that causes a condition like rheumatoid arthritis in people. Of the group that got the polyphenols, only eight developed arthritis  in the group that got plain water, all but one developed arthritis. With regard to cancer, several dozen animal studies indicate that the polyphenols and related compounds in tea are protective, especially against cancers of the oral cavity and digestive tract. Tea chemicals are believed to act by preventing damage to DNA that could result in a loss of control over cell growth. According to cancer researchers at Rutgers University College of Pharmacy, "Tea is one of the few agents that can inhibit carcinogenesis at the initiation, promotion and progression stages." However, they added, it is not yet known how effective tea can be in preventing human cancer, what dose is most effective or what is the best way to administer the active compounds. Studies in people have yielded inconsistent results, in part because in some studies other factors may have entered into the picture to distort the findings, like the heat of the tea and the use of tobacco or alcohol. In one well-designed study conducted in Beijing, China, among 59 patients with precancerous mouth lesions, those treated for six months with capsules of oxidized green tea polyphenols experienced a decrease in the size of the lesions; in the untreated group, the lesions got larger. A study of more than 35,000 postmenopausal women in Iowa suggested that women who drank two or more cups of tea daily were less likely to develop cancers of the digestive tract and urinary tract. However, no protection was found against other cancers. Likewise, a study in the Netherlands among 58,000 men and 62,000 women found no link between tea drinking and a reduced risk of cancers of the lung, breast or colon. However, in a study in laboratory mice and rats, Dr. Fung-Lung Chung of the American Health Foundation found that both green and black tea and caffeine given in drinking water protected the animals against lung cancer caused by a major carcinogen in tobacco. Another study in mice showed that both green and black tea inhibited the growth of both malignant and nonmalignant skin tumors. And a study in rats conducted by Dr. Roderick H. Dashwood of Oregon State University showed that both green and black tea inhibited the formation of precancerous lesions in the colon.

With regard to heart disease and stroke, a study of 1,330 Chinese men found a significantly lower level of serum cholesterol and triglycerides among those who drank more than 10 cups of green tea a day. Some studies in Western countries have indicated that tea drinkers may be less likely to develop heart disease and stroke. A Harvard study by Dr. Howard Sesso indicated that people who drank one or more cups of black tea a day were half as likely to suffer a heart attack as those who did not drink tea, regardless of other risk factors for heart disease. However, much more research is needed to sort out the effects of tea on blood vessel diseases as well as cancer. For example, in a study of 880 Japanese men, researchers found that heavy tea drinkers were also likely to eat more fruits and vegetables, which may account for or contribute to their lower risk of heart disease and cancer. Still, the evidence to date is sufficiently suggestive to prompt the National Cancer Institute to conduct studies of the capacity of the biologically active chemicals in green and black tea to curb the development of cancer in people at high risk for developing cancers of the colon, lung, esophagus and skin. And Japanese researchers have suggested that the ability of green tea and its chemicals to inhibit a substance called tumor necrosis factor-alpha may make it useful in treating a wide range of health problems that include Crohn's disease, multiple sclerosis, malaria and sepsis as well as rheumatoid arthritis.

China's Tea Culture
 People throughout China drink tea daily. Because of the geographic location and climate, different places grow various kinds of tea. In general, there are five kinds of tea classified according to different technique involved in the making of tea: Green tea Longjin Wulong Scented tea Jasmine tea Black tea compressed tea.
 In the past dynasties, people not only formed a special way of tea-drinking, but also developed an art form called tea-drinking. This art form comprises of many aspects. The most noticeable ones are the making of tea, the way of brewing, the drinking utensils such as tea pot. The art of making tea is called "Cha dao", which was soon accepted as one of the most important cultures that Japan learned from China. In Hangzhou, there is a tea museum, the only national museum of its kind, in which there are detailed description of the historic development of tea culture in China.
 China, the Homeland of Tea China is the homeland of tea. Of the three major beverages of the world-tea, coffee and cocoa-tea is consumed by the largest number of people in the world. China has tea-shrubs as early as five to six thousand years ago, and human cultivation of tea plants dates back two thousand years. Tea from China, along with her silk and porcelain, began to be known the world over more than a thousand years ago and has since always been an important Chinese export. At present more than forty countries in the world grow tea with Asian countries producing 90% of the world's total output. All tea trees in other countries have their origin directly or indirectly in China. The word for tea leaves or tea as a drink in many countries are derivatives from the Chinese character "cha." The Russians call it "cha'i", which sounds like "chaye" (tea leaves) as it is pronounced in northern China, and the English word "tea" sounds similar to the pronunciation of its counterpart in Xiamen (Amoy). The Japanese character for tea is written exactly the same as it is in Chinese, though pronounced with a slight difference. The habit of tea drinking spread to Japan in the 6th century, but it was not introduced to Europe and America till the 17th and 18th centuries. Now the number of tea drinkers in the world is legion and is still on the increase. Types of Chinese Tea Chinese tea may be classified into five types of teas according to the different methods by which it is processed. Green tea Green tea is the variety which keeps the original colour of the tea leaves without fermentation during processing. This category consists mainly of Longjing tea of Zhejiang Province, Maofeng of Huangshan Mountain in Anhui Province and Biluochun produced in Jiangsu. Black tea Black tea, known as "red tea" (hong cha) in China, is the category which is fermented before baking; it is a later variety developed on the basis of the green tea. The best brands of black tea are Qihong of Anhui , Dianhong of Yunnan, Suhong of Jiangsu, Chuanhong of Sichuan and Huhong of Hunan. Wulong tea This represents a variety half way between the green and the black teas, being made after partial fermentation. It is a specialty from the provinces on China's southeast coast: Fujian, Guangdong and Taiwan. Compressed tea This is the kind of tea which is compressed and hardened into a certain shape. It is good for transport and storage and is mainly supplied to the ethnic minorities living in the border areas of the country. As compressed tea is black in color in its commercial form, so it is also known in China as "black tea". Most of the compressed tea is in the form of bricks; it is, therefore, generally called "brick tea", though it is sometimes also in the form of cakes and bowls. It is mainly produced in Hubei, Hunan, Sichuan and Yunnan provinces. Scented tea This kind of tea is made by mixing fragrant flowers in the tea leaves in the course of processing. The flowers commonly used for this purpose are jasmine and magnolia among others. Jasmine tea is a well-known favorite with the northerners of China and with a growing number of foreigners.
 Advantages of Tea-Drinking Tea has been one of the daily necessities in China since time immemorial. Countless numbers of people like to have their after meal tea. In summer or warm climate, tea seems to dispel the heat and bring on instant cool together with a feeling of relaxation. For this reason, tea-houses abound in towns and market villages in South China and provide elderly retirees with the locales to meet and chat over a cup of tea. Medically, the tea leaf contains a number of chemicals, of which 20-30% is tannic acid, known for its anti-inflammatory and germicidal properties. It also contains an alkaloid (5%, mainly caffeine), a stimulant for the nerve centre and the process of metabolism. Tea with the aromatics in it may help resolve meat and fat and thus promote digestion. It is, therefore, of special importance to people who live mainly on meat, like many of the ethnic minorities in China. A popular proverb among them says, "Rather go without salt for three days than without tea for a single day." Tea is also rich in various vitamins and, for smokers, it helps to discharge nicotine out of the system. After wining, strong tea may prove to be a sobering pick-me-up. The above, however, does not go to say that the stronger the tea, the more advantages it will yield. Too much tannic acid will affect the secretion of the gastric juice, irritate the membrane of the stomach and cause indigestion or constipation. Strong tea taken just before bedtime will give rise to occasional insomnia. Constant drinking of over-strong tea may induce heart and blood-pressure disorders in some people, reduce the milk of a breast-feeding mother, and put a brown color on the teeth of young people. But it is not difficult to ward off these undesirable effects: just don't make your tea too strong.

 Tea Production A new tea-plant must grow for five years before its leaves can be picked and, at 30 years of age, it will be too old to be productive. The trunk of the old plant must then be cut off to force new stems to grow out of the roots in the coming year. By repeated rehabilitation in this way, a plant may serve for about l00 years . For the fertilization of tea gardens, Soya-bean cakes or other varieties of organic manure are generally used, and seldom chemical fertilizers. When pests are discovered, the affected plants will be removed to prevent their spread, and also to avoid the use of pesticides. The season of tea-picking depends on local climate and varies from area to area. On the shores of West Lake in Hangzhou, where the famous green tea Longjing (Dragon Well) comes from, picking starts from the end of March and lasts through October, altogether 20-30 times from the same plants at intervals of seven to ten days. With a longer interval, the quality of the tea will deteriorate.

A skilled woman picker can only gather 600 grams (a little over a pound) of green tea leaves in a day. The new leaves must be parched in tea cauldrons. This work , whichused to be done manually, has been largely mechanized. Top-grade Dragon Well tea, however, still has to be stir-parched by hand, doing only 250 grams every half hour. The tea-cauldrons are heated electrically to a temp of about 25oC or 74oF. It takes four pounds of fresh leaves to produce one pound of parched tea.

The best Dragon Well tea is gathered several days before Qingming (Pure Brightness, 5th solar term) when new twigs have just begun to grow and carry "one leaf and a bud." To make one kilogram (2.2 lbs) of finished tea, 60, 000 tender leaves have to be plucked. In theold days Dragon Well tea of this grade was meant solely for the imperial household; it was, therefore, known as "tribute tea".

For the processes of grinding, parching, rolling, shaping and dryingother grades of tea various machines have been developed and built, turning out about 100 kilograms of finished tea an hour and relieving the workers from much of their drudgery

\2 herbal teas

Tea made from herbs other than camellia sinensis like chamomile and peppermint. 
 Infusions (tisane) are very strong teas of herbs with their oils. Decoctions are made from herbal roots as ginseng. Flavored teas have been mixed with additives, spices, fruit peels, or flowers.

 AFRICAN `RED TEA' It's not all that red, and it's not really tea, but rooibos tea, first popularized in 1900 near Cape Town, South Africa, has trickled into the margins of American beverage consciousness.

Rooibos (pronounced ROY-boss, from the Dutch words "red bush"), has only been available in the United States for a few years, but has become popular not only for its mellow flavor but also for its touted health benefits. The herbal brew is naturally caffeine-free and contains small amounts of iron, potassium, calcium, copper, zinc and fluoride. It also contains antioxidants, substances thought to fight cancer cells.

Longtime drinkers in Africa also say the tea eases depression, irritability, headaches, insomnia, indigestion and constipation. But the U.S. Food and Drug Administration takes a dim view of products boasting of medicinal benefits without lengthy studies to back them up.

Rooibos is available in bags or loose, and costs $13 to about $60 a pound, depending on the flavor and the source. A pound makes about 200 cups of tea. Local sources include Todd & Holland Tea Merchants in River Forest (708-488-1136). Mail-order houses include Upton Tea Co. in Massachusetts (www.uptontea.com or 800-234-8327) and Norwalk, Conn.-based SpecialTeas (www.specialteas.com or 888-365-6983). The Republic of Tea, a widely distributed producer, also is blending rooibos into some of its packages.

Mellow appeal SpecialTeas started carrying rooibos about a year and a half ago, and it's now one of the company's most popular items, says Jurgen Link, an owner of the company. "It's very mellow," he said. "It has no tannin, so there's no astringency," as with green teas.

SpecialTeas sells regular rooibos, but the flavored varieties are more popular. "The nutty flavors and fruity flavors are doing extremely well and have taken us by surprise how they've turned into some of our best-selling tea," said Link, whose company sells loose-leaf tea to retail outlets, and also maintains a Web site that sells to the public, www.SpecialTeas.com. The company's rooibos flavors include orange and vanilla, as well as several blends that combine the brew with almonds, chocolate, various flower petals, cinnamon or fruit. There's even an Earl Grey version flavored with oil of bergamot.

"People like to drink it for the health benefits. It's a feel-good tea," he said. But antioxidants certainly seem to have some benefit, says Peter McKnight, chief clinical dietitian at Stamford Hospital in Connecticut, and rooibos certainly has them.

"The substances in this particular tea, which don't necessarily make it unique because there are similar substances in green tea and fruits and vegetables, seem to prevent cancer-causing activities in some carcinogens from our diet our diet or taken from the environment," he said.

McKnight said several studies supporting the health benefits of rooibos have been published in peer-reviewed scientific journals.

Even so, he said, "If somebody was going to either make the extra effort to drink this tea, or to make sure they were eating at least five servings of fruits and vegetables every day, the fruits and vegetables would win out big time," he said.

"But if someone likes to experiment with different kinds of teas, this one may have some health benefits."

Antioxidants defined Antioxidants fight free radicals, which are the byproducts of cells that break down food for energy, like car exhaust. The free radicals are oxygen molecules that have lost one electron and seek to stabilize themselves by stealing an electron from a nearby molecule. This "stealing" might cause changes in cells that could lead to cancer, some experts say. The body has natural defenses against this process, but some scientists believe the process becomes less effective as people age.

So consuming food with antioxidants has become very popular over the last few years. Those foods with antioxidants include wheat germ, citrus fruits, strawberries, apricots, green leafy vegetables, broccoli, sweet potatoes, egg yolks, tuna, green tea and now, rooibos.

Unflavored rooibos is a deep red color when brewed, and steeping it for longer than 10 minutes increases the antioxidants. While the tea is increasing in popularity, it took a century for rooibos to make it to America.

At the turn of the 20th Century, the mountain dwellers of the Cedarberg region realized that the needlelike leaves of the Aspalathus linearis plant made a tasty, aromatic tea. It was enjoyed locally until World War II, when tea from Asian sources became scarce and Europeans turned to rooibos, which was sometimes called "masai."

After the war, interest in the tea waned, and trade restrictions against South Africa made export difficult. Africans still drank lots of rooibos, hot and iced. With the fall of apartheid in the 1990s, rooibos growers formed a cooperative to sell and promote their product, which became popular in Europe a few years ago.

Years ago, the only place you were likely to find green tea was in an Asian restaurant. Now nearly every supermarket sells it, both regular and decaffeinated. In the last decade green tea has acquired a reputation as a preventive of many scourges, including heart disease and cancer. But is it? How good is the evidence? And is there a downside to drinking lots of it?

The evidence is conflicting, but to date it does not indicate green tea is a panacea or the elixir many believe it to be. For example, Japanese researchers reported March 1 in The New England Journal of Medicine that among 26,311 residents of northern Japan followed for eight years, the consumption of green tea showed no effect on the risk of developing stomach cancer, a leading killer among cancers in Japan.

Still, there are probably some bnnefits and perhaps a few risks assoc with the frequent consumption of green tea.

What's the Magic? Green tea is not the only form of the plant Camellia sinenis that has acquired a healthpromoting aura. Black tea (the kind consumed by most Westerners) and red tea (oolong, a popular Chinese tea) also have enjoyed much positive press of late. All originate with the same plant.

The difference between them lies in the degree of fermentation after the leaves are picked. For green tea, the leaves are steamed, rolled and dried, and that process inactivates the enzymes that cause oxidation. For black and red teas, the leaves are first partially dried, then crushed and stored in a temperatureand moisture-controlled environment where they oxidize, or ferment, longer for black tea than for red. The extra fermentation results in the darker color of black tea.

All tea contains potent chemicals called polyphenols that theoretically protect people against a host of common health problems and possibly some effects of aging.

Polyphenols act as antioxidants, protecting cells and body chemicals against damage caused by free radicals, reactive atoms that contribute to tissue damage in the body, from the general environment and from normal metabolism. For example, when low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol becomes oxidized, it can become glued to arteries and cause coronary heart disease.

Polyphenols can also block the action of enzymes that cancers need for growth, and they can deactivate substances that promote the growth of cancers. The polyphenol most strongly associated with cancer prevention is epigallocatechin-3-gallate, or EGCG. Both green and black teas and isolated polyphenols from tea have been shown in laboratory studies to act as scavengers of oxygen and nitrogen free radicals, protecting the fatty membranes of cells, proteins and DNA.

For many years, green tea was thought to be a much richer source of polyphenols than either black or red tea, but recent evidence indicates that all teas (except decaffeinated tea, which has less) have about the same amount of these active chemicals, though in different proportions. So, if "green" is not your cup of tea, you're likely to get the same benefit (or no benefit) from black tea.

A Role in Health? Most evidence of the health benefits of green or any other kind of tea comes from laboratory and animal studies, but the results of human studies have been inconsistent and have yet to prove anything one way or another. For example, when animals were fed diets high in fats and cholesterol, polyphenols from green and black tea prevented the expected increase in blood cholesterol and clogging of coronary arteries. But in dogs given green tea extract equivalent to 10 cups of tea a day for four weeks, no significant effects were noted in cardiovascular risk factors.

Only 4 of 13 studies in people have found a cholesterol-lowering effect from drinking green or black tea. In a long-term Dutch study, those who drank the most tea had the lowest risk of death from coronary heart disease and stroke. A follow-up study in Rotterdam linked tea drinking to less severe clogging of the aorta, the body's main artery. Boston researchers noted that people who drank one or more cups of black tea a day had about half the risk of heart attacks as those who did not drink tea. But in all these studies, other unmeasured factors in the diets or habits of tea drinkers may account for the cardiovascular benefits. Drinking tea may be only an indicator of a healthier lifestyle.

In mice, the polyphenol EGCG inhibited the growth of transplanted human breast and prostate cancer cells. And various other animal studies have suggested that drinking tea may help prevent cancers of the skin, lung, esophagus, stomach, liver, small intestine, pancreas, colon, bladder, prostate and breast. In most of these studies, the animals were given tea as their only beverage.

But animals are not people, and as already mentioned, the strong belief that green tea can prevent stomach cancer was not borne out by the Japanese study. And in a large Dutch study, drinking black tea had no effect on people's risk of developing stomach, colorectal, lung or breast cancers.

But some human studies indicate that tea may protect against cancer. In Japan, for example, women who drank more than 10 cups of tea a day (mostly green tea) had a lower risk of developing all cancers. And in patients with breast cancer, tea drinking was associated with a lower rate of metastasis and recurrence.

Studies in northern Italy have suggested a protective effect of tea against cancers of the mouth, throat and larynx. And a study of cancer patients in Shanghai indicated that frequent consumption of green tea reduced the risk of esophageal cancer. In a study of 35,000 older women in Iowa, having at least two cups of tea (mostly black) a day was linked to a lower risk of cancers of the digestive and urinary tracts.

Most reports of a cancer-protective effect of tea come from Asia, where green tea is the main beverage. In European studies, black tea showed a benefit only infrequently, suggesting that the cancer-preventive activity of green tea may be greater than that of black tea.

As for other benefits, a study of women 65 to 76 linked tea to greater bone density, consistent with an earlier finding of a lower risk of hip fractures among tea drinkers. In mice given a disease that mimics human rheumatoid arthritis, green tea polyphenols reduced its incidence and severity. And a human study has suggested that tea consumption may decrease the risk of cataracts.

But whatever protection tea may afford, it is not a free lunch. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition just reported a study showing that green tea extract significantly impaired the ability of young women to absorb iron from vegetables. That impairment could increase their risk of anemia. And for those sensitive to caffeine, tea, whether black or green, has about half the amount of this stimulant as brewed coffee. But canned and bottled teas have less of the protective polyphenols, if any.

The bottom line? Tea, green or otherwise, is a fine beverage. But don't count on it to protect your health, at least not yet

\3 PLANTS FOR MEDICINE

[Flowering+Seeded plants, Ferns, clubmosses, horsetails, Mosses and liverworts, Fungi and lichens, Algae and seaweeds]

Phytotheraputic (herbal) medicine is a scientific discipline requiring graduate study while herbalism is based on lore, from hearsay, and wishful thinking to quakery, which can make a bad day far worse.

In a survival situation you will have to use what is available. In using plants and other natural remedies, positive identification of the plants involved is as critical as in using them for food. Proper use of these plants is equally important... associated with medicinal plant use:  Poultice. The name given to crushed leaves or other plant parts, possibly heated, that you apply to a wound or sore either directly or wrapped in cloth or paper.  Infusion or tisane or tea. The preparation of medicinal herbs for internal or external application. You place a small quantity of a herb in a container, pour hot water over it, and let it steep (covered or uncovered) before use. 

Decoction. The extract of a boiled down or simmered herb leaf or root. You add herb leaf or root to water. You bring them to a sustained boil or simmer to draw their chemicals into the water. The average ratio is about 28 to 56grams (1 to 2 ounces) of herb to 0.5 liter of water.
 Expressed juice. Liquids or saps squeezed from plant material and either applied to the wound or made into another medicine.  Many natural remedies work slower than the medicines you know. Therefore, start with smaller doses and allow more time for them to take effect. Naturally, some will act more rapidly than others.

Specific Remedies  The following remedies are for use only in a survival situation, not for routine use:  Diarrhea. Drink tea made from the roots of blackberries and their relatives to stop diarrhea. White oak bark and other barks containing tannin are also effective. However, use them with caution when nothing else is available  because of possible negative effects on the kidneys. You can also stop diarrhea by eating white clay or campfire ashes. Tea made from cowberry or cranberry or hazel leaves works too.

Antihemorrhagics. Make medications to stop bleeding from a poultice of the puffball mushroom, from plantain leaves, or most effectively from the leaves of the common yarrow or woundwort (Achillea millefolium).

Antiseptics. Use to cleanse wounds, sores, or rashes. You can make them from the expressed juice from wild onion or garlic, or expressed juice from chickweed leaves or the crushed leaves of dock. You can also make antiseptics from a decoction of burdock root, mallow leaves or roots, or white oak bark. All these medications are for external use only.  Fevers. Treat a fever with a tea made from willow bark, an infusion of elder flowers or fruit, linden flower tea, or elm bark decoction.

Colds and sore throats. Treat these illnesses with a decoction made from either plantain leaves or willow bark. You can also use a tea made from burdock roots, mallow or mullein flowers or roots, or mint leaves.  Aches, pains, and sprains. Treat with externally applied poultices of dock, plantain, chickweed, willow bark, garlic, or sorrel. You can also use salves made by mixing the expressed juices of these plants in animal fat or vegetable oils.

Itching. Relieve the itch from insect bites, sunburn, or plant poisoning rashes by applying a poultice of jewelweed (Impatiens biflora) or witch hazel leaves (Hamamelis virginiana). The jewelweed juice will help when applied to  poison ivy rashes or insect stings. It works on sunburn as well as aloe vera.  Sedatives. Get help in falling asleep by brewing a tea made from mint leaves or passionflower leaves.

 Hemorrhoids. Treat them with external washes from elm bark or oak bark tea, from the expressed juice of plantain leaves, or from a Solomon's seal root decoction.
 Constipation. Relieve constipation by drinking decoctions from dandelion leaves, rose hips, or walnut bark. Eating raw daylily flowers will also help.

Worms or intestinal parasites. Using moderation, treat with tea made from tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) or from wild carrot leaves.  Gas and cramps. Use a tea made from carrot seeds as an antiflatulent; use tea made from mint leaves to settle the stomach.  Antifungal washes. Make a decoction of walnut leaves or oak bark or acorns to trttt ringworm and athlete's foot. Apply frequently to the site, alternating with exposure to direct sunlight.

MISCELLANEOUS USES OF PLANTS  Make dyes from various plants to color clothing or to camouflage your skin. Usually, you will have to boil the plants to get the best results. Onion skins produce yellow, walnut hulls produce brown, and pokeberries provide a purple dye.

Make fibers and cordage from plant fibers. Most commonly used are the stems from nettles and milkweeds, yucca plants, and the inner bark of trees like the linden.  Make fish poison by immersing walnut hulls in a small area of quiet water. This poison makes it impossible for the fish to breathe but doesn't adversely affect their edibility.

 Make tinder for starting fires from cattail fluff, cedar bark, lighter knot wood from pine trees, or hardened sap from resinous wood trees.  Make insulation by fluffing up female cattail heads or milkweed down.  Make insect repellents by applying the expressed juice of wild garlic or onion to the skin, by placing sassafras leaves in your shelter, or by burning or smudging cattail seed hair fibers.  Plants can be your ally as long as you use them cautiously. The key to the safe use of plants is positive identification whether you use them as food or medicine or in constructing shelters or equipment

"All substances are poisons; there is none which is not a poison. The right dose differentiates a poison from a remedy." Paracelsus 1500BC. The POISONOUS warning can make you mildly sick to death.  It is a warning to handle it with care. The poison can be in any part of the plant. People poisoned by plants are usually the result of eating misidenti- fied foraged plants or herbs. Prior experience increases the danger. Often none until too much is eaten. NEVER eat any FAMILAR plants in a new environment. Generally poison that act in a short period of time are less toxic than thost that take 12 or more hours. Call for med attention as time is the most important factor. Determine what and amount of poison taken. Describe symptoms. If help is not available; dilude poison by drinking (5-6 glasses) soapy or salt water. Induce vomiting, if poison is not a strong acid or alkali. Save samples and seek medical attention. Some plants known not to toxic may be toxic from man's pesticides. 

There are about 3000 species of fungi, and they are  found everywhere. They are plants without chlorophyll often call mushrooms (edible) or toadstools (poisonous). They are classified by method of spore formation into classes and families

Misidentification is a major cause of plant poisoning. Do not forage in a new environment. Never eat/taste any mushroom, fruit, leaf, root, seed, berry, get the picture?  Almost all plants are poisonous if too much of the wrong part is consumed as apple, peach, or apricot seeds may cause cyanide poisoning. 

In an emergency, time is a most important factor to remove the toxic substance from the body before it can be absorbed, call for medical attention imediately, know what and amount that has been ingested. Describe symptoms. If help is not available; dilude poison by drinking (5-6 glasses) soapy or salt water. Induce vomiting, if poison is not a strong acid or alkali. Save samples for later analysis. 

Herbal medications are not risk free. They are not of consistant quality and many are powerful poisons that may interact negatively with current medication.

FDA dietary supplements warning (NYT 9/22/98) against people using herbal supplements or any drugs without proper medical advice and supervision for any reason.

Problem of herbs is that dosages and strength are never consistant and vary according to location, climate, and crop. NB:Herbs as medicines are not to be trifled with. Use only under a doctor's advice and supervision.

Herb: Flavoring agent.  Spice: Seasoning as salt or pepper. Condiment: A prepared product as catsup and soy sauce. 

[Chinese name] (Mandarin) in squares. Handbook of Chinese Healing Herbs. Daniel Reed. 1995.

You can get the database via ftp from ftp.scs.leeds.ac.uk. For example type the command 'ftp ftp.scs.leeds.ac.uk'. Login with username 'ftp' and give you email address for the password. Once connected do 'cd pub/pfaf' and then 'dir' to show the files. The first one you should read is the README file you can copy this onto your own disk by typing 'get README'. 

This README file has important info for people running the latest version (7.0) of the Access program. You will need to type 'bin' to set binary transfer mode before you get the database itself. You can also use a web browser with the URL ftp://ftp.scs.leeds.ac.uk/pub/pfaf but this does not work quite as well. Note it can take a long time to download the database, try late at night, early in the morning or weekends.

When you do get hold of it could you send me an email to say so. Also could you write direct to PFAF at
        Plants For A Future,
        The Field,
        Penpol,
        Lostwithiel,
        Cornwall, PL22 ONG
        England

so say that you have got the database from the ftp site and also agree to the copyright statement. 

Plants For A Future do not ask for a set fee for this info, since we believe that it should not be denied to anyone who can make good use of it. However, the accumulation of such a useful resource was not without cost, especially if you count the years of peoples' time which was involved and still is as we continually update it.  So if you think the database is useful and want to help the project then a donation would be greatly appreciated. If you are planning to use this info as part of your work you may consider giving a larger donation. 

PFAF is never 'rich' and we rely on such income to keep our research going and to further develop our activities.

We believe that the info contained in the database, catalogue and leaflets should be freely available to all who wish to make use of it and, to that end, we supply them without charge to anyone who requests it. We do normally ask that our expenses (in particular the costs of any floppy disks) are met and would gratefully accept any other donations towards our work - all donations are used in research and in growing the plants.

We do retain the copyright of this information. You are free to use it in any way you see fit, subject to the following conditions:-

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3) We ask that any info you hold about economic, or useful plants is shared with us so that we may improve the database.

Plants for a Future is a charitable company limited by guarantee, registered in England and Wales. Charity No. 1057719, Company Reg No. 3204567, Reg. office Reg. office 131 Spencer Place, Leeds, LS7 4DU, England
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\4 HERBS FOR AILMENTS

ACNE: Burdock, chaparral, parsley, echinacea, red clover, capsicum. ANEMIA: Alfalfa, Red beet root, yellow dock root, strawberry leaves, chickweed, burdock root, nettle, mullein leaves. ARTERIOSCLEROSIS: Comfrey, evening primrose oil, cayenne, golden seal, rose hips, garlic. ATHLETES FOOT: Goldenseal, garlic, black walnut hulls, powdered turmeric, benzoin, myrrh. BAD BREATH: Parsley, myrrh, rosemary BED WETTING: watermelon, cranberry juice. BLOOD CLEANSER: Red clover, chaparral, dandelion, garlic, burdock. BLOOD PURIFIER: Pau d'arco, red clover, chaparral, Oregon grape root. BURSITIS: Alfalfa, chaparral, comfrey, mullein. CANKER SORES: Burdock root. COLIC: Catnip, fennel, camomile, peppermint. COMMON COLD: Red raspberry tea, chaparral, rose hips, honey, garlic, golden seal, chamomile flowers, slippery elm bark, cayenne, peppermint, blessed thistle. DERMATITIS: Pau d'arco, aloe vera (topically), dandelion, golden seal, evening primrose. EAR INFECTION: Blue cohosh, scullcap echinacea. ECZEMA: Aloe vera, chickweed, red clover, yellow dock, Pau d'arco. EYE DISORDERS: Eyebright. GAS, INTESTINAL: Catnip, ginger, peppermint, horseradish. GLAND INFECTIONS: Bee pollen (excellent although not an herb), golden seal, saw palmetto, echinacea. GOUT: Yucca, stinging nettle, safflower, Pau d'arco, lobelia. HEMORRHOIDS: Yellow Dock, butcher's broom, marshmallow, black walnut, lobelia.  (all external as well as internal application)IMPETIGO: Echinacea, red clover, licorice root, turmeric (made into a paste and applied externally) -- CHICKEN POX: Lobelia, cayenne, red clover. KIDNEY AND BLADDER STONES: Corn silk, dandelion, juniper, parsley, uva ursi, thyme. LAXATIVES: Psyllium husks, flaxmeal. LEG CRAMPS: Horsetail grass, alfalfa, comfrey herb, oat straw, scullcap. LIVER DISORDERS: horsetail, dandelion, cascara sagradaLOWER BOWEL PROBLEMS: Psyllium seed husks, calamus root tea. MIGRAINE HEADACHES: Feverfew, camomile. MORNING SICKNESS: Red raspberry, peppermint leaf, alfalfa, catnip, ginger. MOUTH SORES (Canker, Thrush, Pyorrhea): Aloe vera, golden seal, myrrh, red raspberry, white oak bark, lecithin. PHLEBITIS: Calendula. PROSTATE AND KIDNEY: Golden seal, corn silk, uva ursi, juniper berries, ginseng, cayenne. SENILITY: Dandelion, ginseng, gotu kola, alfalfa, licorice, yellow dock. THYROID: Mullien, parsley, kelp, black walnut, irish moss. TONSILLITIS: Echinacea, bayberry root, ginger. VAGINAL PROBLEMS: Aloe vera, blessed thistle, garlic, ginger, golden seal root, red raspberry, slippery elm bark, yellow dock root, comfrey root, uva ursi. VARICOSE VEINS: White oak bark, calendula, witch hazel, yarrow. WATER RETENTION: Dandelion, parsley, uva ursi, cranberry, juniper, buchu. WHOOPING COUGH: Valerian root, cayenne

\5 HOW TO PREPARE HERBS FOR MEDICINE

Herbs are easy and fun to prepare in order to use for medicinal purposes.

CAPSULES: Use all natural gelatin capsules when using powdered herbs.  Many herbs have a bitter taste, this often is the medicinal value in the herb, but makes teas unpleasant.  Capsules can be used to take herbs quickly and pleasantly. Empty capsules and a quick, and easy capsule maker can be found and obtained in the HERBAL CATALOG at the Main Menu.

DECOCTION: This is a preparation made by boiling herbal substances in water for a considerable period of time, usually about 30 minutes.  Hard materials such as pieces of roots, bark, seeds, etc.  are usually prepared in this way as they require longer subjection to heat in order to extract their active principles.  Generally 1 ounce of the botanical substance is placed in 1 pint of cold water. the container is then covered and the solution allowed to boil for one-half hour, after which it is then strained, cooled and ready for use.  However, since some of the water boils away, may herbalists prefer to use 1 1\2 pints of water so that when the boiling period has ended, the decoction measures approximately 1 pint.

FOMENTATION: Dip cloth in the infusion or decoction, wring it out, and apply locally.

INFUSIONS: Infusions are frequently called teas, and are generally prepared in the amount of 1 ounce of the plant substance to 1 pint of water.  However, sometimes plants contain very active principles, and little less herb is sufficient. Bring the water to a boil and pour over the herb, in a covered container, let the solution steep (stand) for 15 minutes (stirring occasionally).  When the steeping has ended, strain the infusion and use.  Infusions can be prepared by placing 1 teaspoon of the plant substance in a cup and pouring boiling water over it.  It is then covered with a saucer and allowed to steep for 15 minutes, after this, it is strained and used.  Sometimes a little honey is added to make the infusion more palatable. INFUSIONS ARE NEVER ALLOWED TO BOIL.

OINTMENTS OR SALVE: An easy method to make a salve or ointment is to take approximately eight parts of vaseline or vegetable shortening and two parts of the herb you are wanting to use.  Heat on low heat and stir occasionally for 20 minutes. Let cool, strain into glass or porcelain container with a wide opening, for easy assess. POULTICES: Poultices are used to apply moist heat to draw or soothe. Fresh leaves of the particular herb called for is bruised and steeped in boiling water (only enough to moisten) for a short time.  The leaves are then spread between tow pieces of cloth and applied as hot as possible, then, covered with a dry cloth to retain heat.  A second poultice is prepared while the first one is still being used.  It is to replace the first poultice the moment it begins to noticeably lose heat.  The powdered herb of a plant may be substituted for the fresh leaves.  Use enough of the powdered herb to make a paste.
 The paste is then spread between two pieces of cloth, applied and renewed, several times.

SYRUP: Boil tea for 20 minutes, add 1 oz.  glycerin, and seal up in bottles, as you would fruit.  The small juice bottles bought at the `quick stops' are just the right size for this. TINCTURE: These are spirit preparations made with pure or diluted alcohol (not rubbing alcohol), brandy, vodka, or gin is the best.  Tinctures are used because some herbs will not yield their properties to water alone, or may be rendered useless bay application of heat.  In other instances, and herb will more readily impart it's active principles when prepared as a tincture.  Usually, 4 ounces of water and 12 ounces of alcohol is mixed with 1 ounce of the powdered her.  The mixture is allowed to steep (stand) for 2 weeks, the bottle should be shaken thoroughly every night.  After the 2 weeks are up, the clear liquid is strained off carefully, so as not to disturb the sediment.  Strain and discard the sediment.  The tincture is then bottled for use.

This file was retrieved from Book Stacks Unlimited, Inc.  telnet books. com -or- ftp ftp. books. com -or- modem 216-861-0469

cont.preparations

Infusion: Prepared by pouring hot water over herbal leaves or flowers and covering for 5-10 minutes. Results are most effective taken soon after completion. Simalarily teas (tisanes) are made the same way but with aromatic herbs. Rather than add sugar to sweeten bitter potions, have  a piece of dried fruit afterward. 

Decoction: Simmering or double boiling herb barks or roots for about 15 minutes and straining. Most effective if taken immediately. In Asia there are double boilers specifically for this process. 

Maceration: A preparation made by steeping herbs in water for a period of time, sometimes overnight. 

Poultices: are a concoction of prepared (mashed) herbs or its paste in a cloth applied to body part. 

A compress is soaking a cloth with a hot infusion, decoction, or tincture and applying it to the body area. 

also Creams: Ointments: Syrups: Tintures:


\6 HEALTH PRINCIPLES TO FOLLOW

How many times have you heard this one? "Eat the right foods. " Well, this book is no exception.

Vitamin E, Folic Acid, Selenium .. and good Nutrition - Exercise - PM

Herbs do have a marvelous healing power, if they have some help. They are not miracle drugs which will fix everything by themselves.  Our bodies ability to heal itself, with help at times, is extraordinary!

The combination of our bodies' marvelous regenerative powers coupled with the healing powers of herb can return us to glowing health, but all would be futile if we continued to deliberately mistreat our bodies.

Eating is as much a way of medication to the body as any other medicine is.  Food sometimes takes longer to affect the body, sometimes it has an immediate effect, nevertheless, it always affects us.

A general rule of thumb is: Eat as much partially cooked or raw vegetables as possible.  Avoid white sugar products.  Cut down on fats and oils.  Use alcohol (if any) moderately.

\7 DESIRABLE FOODS

The following is a list of DESIRABLE FOODS:

1.  All Garden Vegetables (in order of desirability, fresh, or canned) Asparagus Tomato Potatoes Celery Squash Cauliflower Garbanzos Broccoli CabbageCarrotsParsleyLettuce CornString Beans Rutabaga Peas YamsParsnips Chard Sprouts

2. Protein Dishes (beef, veal, lamb, venison, elk, buffalo, fish, chicken, cheese). Meats should be broiled, the cheese unprocessed.

3. Dairy foods--Buttermilk, Yogurt, Cottage cheese.

4. Fruits, Fruit Juices, Vegetable Juices.

5. Nuts and Seeds.

6. Dietary Fiber--Wheat Bran, Rice Bran, Oatmeal, Pectin. Good dietary habits will go a long way in maintaining good health.  It isn't always easy to develop good habits, but the effort is worth it


\8 HERBS AND SPICES

Curry of India. Used in cooking. A mixure of as many as 20 freshly ground spices (garam msala) as coriander, perrer, chillies, cloves, turmeric. Coriander is main ingredient, turmeric makes it yellow. to vary .. Sweet: Potatoes, Bottle gourd; Sour: Chinbaung leaves; Hot+Spicy: Ground cayenne; Bitter: Bitter melon.

spices:

Sambal= A mixure of spices and chillies used in Asian cooking

..in Bengali cuisine: Equal portions of black mustard, cumin, fennel, fenugreek, and nigella seeds

..in China: compound flavor is found in many stall dishes as tripe and stews. The five spices are: star anise, fagara, cassia, fennel seeds, and cloves. Flavor does not keep, buy little, use quickly, store in refrigerated jar

..in France: based on pepper, nutmeg, cloves, and cinnamon are used in stews pates, ect.

Spices are cousin of herbs and related to drugs and medicines. Aromatic parts of plants used to season or mask insipid food as those of carbohydrate origin or to mask the taste of salted or hide to flavor of rotten meat. They were also used as preservatives and fumagants.

Spices that are prominent in traditional dishes from tropical and subtropical regions are used with a much lighter hand, if at all, in countries and regions where the climate is colder, the researchers found. And many of the spices that appear most often and most abundantly in recipes from hot climates -- especially garlic, onion and hot peppers -- can inhibit 75 percent to 100 percent of the bacteria species against which they have been tested, according to studies by food microbiologists. 

The researchers concluded that a taste for spicy foods may have evolved in hot climates and been transmitted from neighbor to neighbor and to succeeding generations as a cultural "neme," the social science equivalent of a gene. While they admit that the immediate reason for using spices "obviously is to enhance food palatability," they added that "the ultimate reason is most likely that spices help cleanse foods of pathogens and thereby contribute to the health, longevity and reproductive success of people who find their flavors enjoyable."  George Williams, the editor of the journal, said that transmission of a taste for highly spiced food is both cultural and genetic and can begin in the womb. He cited studies by Sandra Gray at the University of Kansas showing that "the mother's diet during pregnancy and lactation can influence the dietary habits of her baby throughout its life." 

Of course, Sherman said in an interview, people have other ways than spices of preserving food -- by salting, cooking, smoking, or drying it, and now by refrigerating or freezing it. 

But he believes the contribution of spices, all of which come from plants, had not previously been adequately explored or appreciated. He pointed out that many spice plants are rich in compounds that have antimicrobial actions. These compounds evolved in plants as protection against pathogens and predators. 

Thomas Eisner, professor of chemical ecology at Cornell who has studied how animals use plant chemicals, said, "Many plant metabolites have antimicrobial potency. The use of antibiotics from natural sources is by no means a human invention." For example, he said, an assassin bug he has studied scrapes resin from the leaves of camphor weed and spreads it on her eggs to protect them from pathogens. 

Sherman, an evolutionary behaviorist and professor of neurology and behavior, and Ms. Billing, then an undergraduate at Cornell, analyzed the frequency with which various spices appear in the traditional recipes of 36 countries, including the northern and southern halves of the United States and China. 

In the analysis of 4,578 recipes containing meat, poultry or fish published in 93 traditional cookbooks, Ms. Billing found that the hotter the climate of the region, the more spices were called for in the recipes. 

Especially prominent were spices like onion and garlic that have been shown to inhibit the growth of all 30 microorganisms considered in the study. Capsicums, or hot peppers, which are widely used in hot climates, inhibit the growth of 80 percent of microorganisms considered.  For example, among 120 recipes from Indonesia, 80 percent contained garlic and onion and 77 percent contained capsicums. However, in Ireland, a considerably cooler country, onions appeared in 56 percent, garlic in 23 percent, and capsicums in only 2 percent of 90 recipes analyzed, even though the plants can grow there.  In India, more than 80 percent of Indian recipes were prepared with onions, ginger, and capsicums and 76 percent called for garlic. 

But in Norway, the only prominent seasonings were black and white pepper, used in less than half the recipes.  Onion appeared in only 20 percent of recipes and capsicums were not found in any of the 77 traditional recipes analyzed. 

Likewise, there are spice use differences within countries with significant regional temperature differences: the northern and southern United States and northeastern and southwestern China. Sherman suggested that antimicrobial activity may explain why a relatively bland milk-based clam chowder became popular in New England while a spicier crawfish etoufee is preferred in the Deep South. 

"I consider recipes a record of the cultural co-evolutionary race between us and microbes," Sherman said. "We are trying to keep ahead of the microbes that are trying to eat the same foods we eat."  He outlined a likely scenario for the evolution of highly spiced foods in countries where food-borne microbes thrive: "The first spice is added and it has a positive effect. Then a second microbe comes along and another spice is added, which has a positive effect, and so on, until a lot of spices are being used, but not so many that there are negative consequences." 

He also noted that many spices that themselves have relatively weak antibiotic effects become much more potent when combined, for example, in chili powder (typically a mixture of red pepper, onion, paprika, garlic, cumin, and oregano) and five-spice powder (pepper, cinnamon, anise, fennel and cloves). Lemon and lime juice, too, have such synergistic effects, Sherman said. 

Cheryl Ritenbaugh, an anthropologist who studies how food influences health at the Kaiser-Permanente Center for Health Research in Portland, pointed out that chili peppers are a New World food that did not circulate worldwide until after the time of Columbus, so their use in many tropical countries may be too recent to support the Billing-Sherman theory. 

However, she said: "If the climate is hot and the food monotonous, people may not eat enough, and anything that would add flavor and kill bacteria would be very welcome." 

Spicy foods may also enhance digestion. Marvin Harris, an anthropologist at the University of Florida in Gainesville, said foods made with chili peppers increase salivation, prepare the gut for receiving food, foster intestinal action and help to create a sense of fullness, which would be an evolutionary advantage in countries where food was relatively scarce. 

Larry R. Beuchat, a microbiologist who studies food-borne pathogens and spoilage organisms at the University of Georgia's Center for Food Safety and Quality Enhancement in Griffin, Ga., said that the Billing-Sherman hypothesis has merit. Even at the low levels used in recipes, plant chemicals have antimicrobial activity, he said, adding that the use of essential oils, which are oil-based extracts of plant chemicals, "is one of the oldest methods of preserving meat and was used in mummification." 

Sherman pointed out that in large quantities, some of the antimicrobial chemicals found in spice plants are mutagens, carcinogens, and teratogens, substances that can cause genetic damage and birth defects. This may be why women in the first trimester of pregnancy and children who are growing rapidly tend to avoid spicy foods, he said. "During rapid growth, even though there is still a danger of ingesting microbes, the risk of ingesting harmful plant compounds from spices might be worse," he suggested. 

Sherman and Ms. Billing discounted competing explanations for the prevalence of spices in foods from hot climates. They wrote that because spices are consumed in tiny quantities, they provide little of nutritive value. Only hot peppers, but not most of the prominently used spices, induce sweating "and even chilies do not increase perspiration in many people." 

That the use of spices evolved and spread simply because they disguise the smell or taste of spoiled foods makes little evolutionary sense because people who ate them would be more likely to get sick and die. 

The researchers found no relationship between mean annual temperature and numbers of spices that grow in each country. Nor do tropical countries rely only on spices that are locally grown. "People do not use every spice that grows in their country, but they do use many spices that must be imported, and for centuries have gone to great lengths to obtain them," they wrote. Although pepper, for example, is one of the most frequently used spices in all 36 countries studied, it grows in only nine of them. 

In further support of their argument, Sherman and Ms. Billing noted that "flavors of many widely used spices are not immediately appealing." Rather, people have to learn to like them. "The fact that parents encourage their children to eat (displeasing) spices, and that children come to prefer them by adolescence, strongly suggests that using spices is somehow beneficial"

\9 Introduction to the Anthophyta, the flowering plants

If you have ever stopped to smell the roses, then you are familiar with the largest group of plants, the Anthophyta. The distinctive feature of this group is the flower, a cluster of highly-specialized leaves which participate in reproduction. Not all flowers are as conspicuous as the Magnolia blossom in the picture above; oaks, ivy, and grasses also produce flowers, but because they are not as showy we often do not notice them. 

The flowering plants are important in many ways above and beyond their aesthetic appeal in flower arrangements. Not a day goes by in which our lives are not affected by flowering plants. Nearly all of our food comes from flowering plants; grains, beans, nuts, fruits, vegetables, herbs and spices almost all come from plants with flowers, as do tea, coffee, chocolate, wine, beer, tequila, and cola. Much of our clothing comes from them as well -- cotton and linen are made from "fibers" of flowering plants, as are rope and burlap, and many commercial dyes are extracted from other flowering plants. We also owe them credit for a large number of our drugs, including over-the-counter medicines such as aspirin, prescribed drugs such as digitalis and atropine, and controlled drugs such as opium, cocaine, marijuana, and tobacco.

Anthophyta: Fossil Record The origin of angiosperms is still a mystery. More than one-hundred years ago, Darwin called the origin of angiosperms an "abominable mystery". Angiosperms appear rather suddenly in the fossil record, with no obvious ancestors for a period of about 80 to 90 million years prior to their appearance. Not even fossil leaves or pollen are known from this earlier time. 

The truth is that we just don't have many early fossils of angiosperms, and those we do have are troublesome. Many of the early fossils show a mix of features which define modern groups, making them difficult to interpret. The implication, then, is that there was much experimentation in the early evolution of angiosperms, and only later did the features sort out into different lineages. 

The rapid diversification of angiosperm taxa began in the Albian, in the mid-Cretaceous, and has continued to this day. At that time, there is an almost exponential increase in angiosperm diversity, and there does not appear to have been any major extinctions of groups in between. Despite the large numbers of taxa that are known from rather early in this diversification, there is no indication of where the taxa are coming from. D.I. Axelrod has suggested that we do not find early angiosperm fossils because the earliest angiosperms lived in dry, upland habitats where the were unlikely to be preserved as fossils. Though this idea has long been accepted, it has not been well investigated and so remains to be tested. 

Although there is rapid diversification beginning in the Albian, it is not until the Cenozoic that angiosperms began to take on important ecological roles. Studies of a preserved Maastrichtian (late Cretaceous) landscape from Wyoming suggest that the high diversity of angiosperm species was confined to small populations, and that the vegetation was still largely dominated by ferns and cycads. Angiosperms found at the site were located in ephemeral habitats along streams, and were a minor component of the vegetation (Wing et al. 1993). 

This study is welcomed by many paleobotanists as an explanation for the sparse fossil record for angiosperms, but these conclusions will have to await further testing. The site is so far the only one studied, and since it represents only one place and one time, it may not be representative of the global conditions.

Were the first angiosperms trees or herbs? One of the biggest questions about early angiosperms, besides their origin, is the nature of their growth habit. Were the first angiosperms woody trees and shrubs, or were they small herbs? Each hypothesis has been favored at one time or another, and the question remains unanswered today, though scientific opinion currently favors a woody origin. 

Angiosperm Origins: The two competing hypotheses for angiosperm origins paint very different pictures about the biology of the earliest flowering plants. The Paleoherb Hypothesis suggests that the basal lineages were herbs with rapid lifecycles, while the Magnoliid Hypothesis suggests that the basal lineages were small trees with slower lifecycles. ( Dicots=tricolpate dicots; Magnol=magnoliids; Mono=monocots; Palherbs=paleoherbs ) 

The two hypotheses do not simply differ in their statements about relationships, but paint very different pictures about the implications for angiosperm diversification. 

The Woody Magnoliid Hypothesis -- Cladistic analyses by Doyle and Donoghue favor an early angiosperm with morphology similar to living members of the Magnoliales and Laurales. These groups are small to medium-sized trees with long broad leaves and large flowers with indeterminate numbers perianth parts. The carpels are imperfectly fused, and make a physical intermediate between a folded leaf and fused pistil.  This hypothesis is also favored by molecular studies, and so currently is favored by systematic botanists. It suggests that the earliest angiosperms were understory trees and shrubs, and that the flower was NOT the key innovation for the rapid diversification of angiosperms. In fact woody magnoliids are not particularly diverse, even today. 

The Paleoherb Hypothesis -- The alternative view is an herbaceous origin for the angiosperms. This view has been championed in recent years by Taylor and Hickey, paleobotanists whose cladistic analysis of angiosperms suggests a very different scenario from that previously described. In their analysis, the basal angiosperms are tropical paleoherbs, a group of flowering plants with uncomplicated flowers and a mix of monocot and dicot features. 

The implication here is that the key innovations of flowers and a rapid life cycle were present in the earliest angiosperms. It has been suggested that changes in climate or geography provided opportunities for these early angiosperms to diversify. 

Anthophyta: Systematics Move deeper into the systematics of flowering plant groups by selecting one of the boxes containing a picture! 

The Anthophyta are the flowering plants, and are the largest and most diverse group of plants today. They are usually divided into two groups based on the number of cotyledons on the embryo. Those flowering plants with two cotyledons are called dicots while those with only one are called monocots. Current hypotheses about the origin and diversification of the flowering plants suggest that the dicots are the older group, from which the monocots evolved. In fact, some dicots, called paleoherbs, are now believed to be closer relatives of the monocots than of the other dicots. You can read about the morphological differences between monocots and dicots from our special exhibit. http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/anthophytasy.html


\10 MODERN MEDICINE----ROOTED IN ANCIENT TIMES Stacks Unlimited, Inc. telnet books.com -or- ftp ftp.books.com -or- modem 216-861-0469

Herbs have been used successfully for over 4000 years in China for healing and balancing the body's energy.  The use of herbs as body cleansers, rejuvenators, tonics and relaxers have been practiced by mankind, all over the world, from the very beginning of mankind's history of imperfection.  These natural remedies are still in use today. The code of medical ethics known as the Hippocratic Oath is still taken today by graduating students in many medical schools. Hippocrates, the so called, Father of Medicine,lived from 460-377 BCE, and was one of the most observing and industrious men who ever lived. He was the first to conceive the idea of diagnosis and also exercised great care in regulating the diet of persons afflicted with acute diseases.  Wounds were treated with the view of guarding against undue loss of blood.  Herbs, diet, baths, fresh air, massage, rest and quiet formed the bulk of his treatments, and he made his followers swear on oath that they would give no poisonous remedies  to their patients. Can modern medicine always say this?  Between three and four hundred plants are mentioned in what are know as the Hippocratic Writings.

The familiar sign Rx, which is generally found in the upper left-hand corner of the modern prescription, has been traced to the pagan symbol for Jupiter.  It has been said, that the ancient practice of placing this symbol at the head of prescriptions was instituted in the time of Nero, when the Christians were being brutally persecuted. The early Christians, whether physician or patient, were put to death, for refusing to use this symbol, their consciences would not let them use this or any symbol such as this one.  These early  Christians worshiped only the Creator, whose name can still be found in most Bibles today at Psalm 83.18.

The symbol indicated an allegiance of the physician to the State,  whom Jupiter was the God of, and none could obtain medicine without this symbol.  The symbol  meant, "Take thou in the name of Jupiter." The ancients employed the Greek word `Physis', meaning the natural constitution, to signify pharmacy and sorcery, and that in this way those who taught and practiced the healing art, came to be know as "physicians."

From the many facts existing, we may well believe that there is not a single disease in man that may not be alleviated or cured in some herb or other, if  we but knew which plant and where to find it. For, who has not often seen, not only our own domestic animals, but many of the untamed creatures of forest, field, and sky, seek out some one particular herb when laboring under sickness or some  derangement?  Our Creator has, of course, wisely implanted a definite instinct  in these creatures, in order to serve for it's health, or restoration to health, from disease.  In man, however, such instinct, is not instilled.  Man has been given reason and judgment and a disposition to investigate the laws and mysteries of creation, in order to secure his own health.  An old proverb says, "There are sermons in stones, and books in running brooks;" so do we behold volumes of wisdom in all the herbal kingdom--every emerald and  variegated leaf, in every tinted blossom.  In all, there is a voiceless language, eternally singing significant songs of the Creator of all things.

In Hypocrites day only a few hundred plants were known which could alleviate pain and suffering, today, thousands have been analyzed and investigated and cataloged!  We have, at our disposal, a wealth of information about illnesses, herbal cures, and the convenience of having what we need delivered to our door!
 So, the question is-- why suffer when we don't have to?

MAINTENANCE & PREVENTION

Herbs are marvelous medicines which are available to the so called, "common man".  Anyone can obtain information about their use and identification, then, with this new knowledge, go out into the back- yard and find painkillers, weight-loss aids, and many more.

If the busy, hectic pace of today's modern lifestyles prevent an indepth study and search for herbs and their healing benefits, herbs are readily obtainable through people who sell them.  One such source is listed in this book at the Main Menu.  Choose  NATURAL
 PRODUCTS FOR FAMILY & PETS, and BOOKS.

There are many herbs, which when taken regularly, are harmless to the body when used continuously, and keep the body free of toxins and aid the immune system.  These herbs prevent many illnesses we may have otherwise fallen prey to.  The body thus is maintained in a balanced way.

Herbs help the body to function in a more normal manner.  Remember, our original parents were perfect, we are not.  Sometimes, due to the imperfection we must live with, our bodies need a little help in maintaining itself.  Herbs do this naturally and effectively, without harmful side-effects.

This book is just a sample of the wealth of information available to you.  The registered version is a complete Herbal with information for alleviating and/or curing some of the worst diseases known to man.  You will find registration information in the introduction of this book.


A Modern Herbal - Introduction (1931)

BOTANY and medicine came down the ages hand in hand until the seventeenth cen; then both arts became scientific, their ways parted, and no new herbals were compiled. The botanical books ignored the medicinal properties of plants and the medical books contained no plant lore.

The essence of a herbal was the combination of tradi- tional plant lore, the medicinal properties of the herbs, and their botanical classification. From the time of Dioscorides down to Parkinson in 1629 this herbal tradition was unbroken. Culpeper's popular herbal was discredited with scientific people because it was astrological.

The death of the herbal was one of the reasons why, with a few exceptions, the only plants which have retained their place in the Allopaths' pharmacopoeias are poisonous ones like Aconite, Belladonna, Henbane and the Opium Poppy.

Dandelion, Gentian and Valerian for some reason have survived and the Homeopaths use many more, but such useful plants as Agrimony, Slippery Elm, Horehound, Bistort, Poplar, Bur Marigold, Wood Betony, Wood Sanicle, Wild Carrot, Raspberry leaves, and the Sarsaparillas are now only used by Herbalists.

All serious Herbalists have long realized that a new Herbal is badly needed - a herbal which must include the traditional lore and properties of plants, and the modern use of properly standardized extracts and tinctures which were unknown in the days of Gerard and Parkinson, and even in the days of Culpeper, and which have been made possible by the development of modern chemistry.

The interest for the amateur can only be an historical one, because the herbal tinctures and extracts are too potent to be prescribed or experimented with by the unskilled or the inexperienced; in fact, it is as danger- ous for amateurs to doctor themselves indiscriminately with herbs, as is would be for them to administer drugs in their alkaloid form.

A knowledge of herbs is as necessary as a knowledge of Pathology, if herbal treatment for all but the simplest ailments is to be successful.

Each herb has its own indications for use, and successful prescribing depends upon the correspondence between these indications and the patient's symptoms. Then, and only then, will the result be altogether successful.

Most of the modern scientific work on the right use of herbs we owe to Hahnemann and his successors.

That famous head master, Edward Thring, first taught me botany when I was a baby, in the School House garden and Uppingham fields. I still remember the pride I felt when he strapped the black japanned tin lined with green to my tiny back, and though at the time I was only four and much too young to enjoy searching in the heat for rare plants like Ladies' Tresses and Green Hellebore, the names of the plants, like the dates of the English kings, were impressed upon my mind so vividly that it has been impossible for me ever to forget them.

After Edward Thring's death, his daughter Sarah carried on my lessons, and I have never lost touch with the subject.

At one time there was an idea of my entering the medical profession, but I was put off by my first lesson in dissection.

I have always experimented in the innocent alchemy of scent blending and cooking, but it was not until I had written my first book on herbs that the idea came to me to found the Society of Herbalists, and since 1926 I have done nothing else but research work in herbal medicine.

Just before I opened Culpeper House, a list of Mrs Grieve's monographs on herbs came to me through the post. I made her acquaintance, and after examining the pamphlets, thought they might be the nucleus of the much-needed modern herbal.

I took the monographs and the suggestion to Mr. Cape, who agreed to publish them if I would collate and edit them and see that the American herbs were also included.

Mrs Grieve's original pamphlets only included the English herbs, many of which she grew in her Buckinghamshire grdn

During the War, when there was a shortage of medicinal plants because they could no longer be imported from abroad, Mrs. Grieve made practical use of her knowledge and trained pupils in the work of drying and preparing herbs for the chemists' market.

She did a great deal to revive the herb industry in England. The arrangement and the editing of the vast quantity of material which Mrs Grieve had accumulated has been a task of some difficulty. I have arranged the plants alphabetically under their most familiar names, hoping to interest flower-lovers as well as doctors, and in this way they are as easily found as the words in a dictionary. The country names are in the index.

This is not the orthodox arrangement either from the Herbalist's, or the Homeopath's, or the Allopath's, point of view.

Herbalists talk about Jalap and Black Haw, but to the uninitiated Bindweed and Guelder Rose are far more familiar, and it is under these names that they will be found in this herbal.

In homeopathy the Anemone and the Forget-me-not are known as Pulsatilla and Myosotis, and chemists accustomed to the Latin names may be shocked to find Taraxacum under Dandelion, Podophyllum under Mandrake, and Calendula under Marigold.

The very names of the plants are so interesting; the names are often derived from their original use in medicine, and the traditional use has been derived from some peculiarity of the plant based on the doctrine of signatures, its shape, growth, colour, scent or taste, or habitat.

For instance, the flower of the Scullcap, one of the best cures for insomnia, has a strong resemblance to the shape of the human skull. The Yellow Cedar has a curious sinister appearance and is used to cure fungoid growths. The little blue flower of the Eyebright with its yellow centre suggests the human eye, and is so useful for tired eyes that the French have called it 'casse lunettes.'

The flowers of many of the herbs which purify the blood are red in colour, eg. the Scarlet Pimpernel, the Burdock, the Red Clover.

The medicinal value of Nettles is indicated by their sting; they are used internally to stimulate the circulation.

When a plant has a particularly unpleasant smell like the stinking Arrach, it usually points to a particular use - the stinking Arrach is used for foul ulcers.

The bark of the Willow cures rheumatism brought on by damp, and the tree grows in wet places.

Most of the flowers used for jaundice are yellow, like Dandelion, Agrimony, Celandine, Hawkweed and Marigold.

Viper's Buglass is considered an antidote to snake-bite, and its seed is not unlike the reptile's head.

Lungwort, because of its spotted leaves, was used for diseased lungs.

The classical names often embody the tradition which goes back to legendary times. For instance, Bellis Perennis chronicles the wound-healing properties of the Daisy. Tussilago Farfara is the botanical name for the Coltsfoot, which is used to cure coughs and colds, and Valerian is derived from the Latin word Valere.

Surely it makes a garden more romantic and wonderful to know that Wallflowers, Irises, Lupins, Delphiniums, Columbines, Dahlias and Chrysanthemums, every flower in the garden from the first Snowdrop to the Christmas Rose, are not only there for man's pleasure but have their compassionate use in his pain. HILDA LEYEL, 20 OLD SQUARE, LINCOLN'S INN

GENETIC ENGINEERING

 In 1997 the genetic engineering of plants continued to make impressive contributions to the development of improved agricultural crops. The gene in baker's yeast that allows the cells to revive
 after being totally desiccated was introduced into tobacco plants; when the plants' leaves were cut and left to dry, they were still fresh a day later. The advance opened up a new way to protect crops from both severe drought and frost. Plants were also being engineered with greater tolerance of aluminum, the cause of a problem that afflicts 40% of arable land, mainly in the tropics, where acid soils release toxic aluminum ions into the groundwater. Tobacco plants were genetically altered such that their roots released citric acid, an organic acid that tied up aluminum ions in the soil, preventing the aluminum from entering and damaging the roots.
 
 The importance of engineering corn (maize) was highlighted when the U.S. Congress announced plans to analyze the entire genetic makeup, or genome, of the plant, the first crop plant designated to have all its genes mapped and DNA sequenced, in a $40 million project considered to be as significant as the Human Genome Project. The corn genome comprises three billion pairs of bases, the molecular building blocks of DNA, and 30,000 genes, which makes the task comparable in size to unraveling the human genome. By helping to unravel the genetic mysteries of corn, the project could help researchers engineer other major grain crops. The Japanese government pledged to map and sequence the rice genome, six times smaller than the corn genome.
 
 Making productive decisions about the genetic engineering of plants requires a thorough understanding of plant physiology. Biotechnologists had been eager to eliminate a process in plants called photorespiration, a side reaction of photosynthesis that seems to waste a plant's synthesized food by turning it back into carbon dioxide. Akiko Kozaki and Go Takeba of Kyoto (Japan) University, however, discovered that photorespiration actually protects plants from the harmful effects of strong light. Using genetically modified tobacco plants, they reported that the more a plant photorespires, the better it withstands high-intensity light.  Because plants are rooted to one spot and unable to run from danger, they have evolved an immense array of self-defense systems against pests. Investigators took genes that had been discovered to give both wild beets and snowdrops the ability to repel nematode soil worms and introduced them into grapevines to protect their roots. Commercial spin-offs of the achievement could be considerable; currently, vines infected with nematodes were treated with methyl bromide, a fumigant that was scheduled to be banned in the U.S. in the year 2001.
  Since the early 1990s an astonishing airborne communication system between plants had been deciphered. Researchers learned that plants under attack by pests send out messages in the form of volatile compounds to their still-unassaulted neighbours that tell them to prepare their defenses against the insects. Work during the year by Vladimir Shulaev and colleagues of Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N.J., showed that the chemical message system extends to viral attacks. Plants infected with tobacco mosaic virus release methyl salicylate, better known as the fragrant oil of wintergreen, which switches on the defense mechanisms of nearby healthy plants.
  Work on plant defenses had also revealed that plants under attack from such insects as caterpillars release airborne insect repellants or broadcast chemical signals to predatory wasps, which attack the pests. Recently, a plant called molasses grass was discovered giving off such signals when unmolested. In field trials in Kenya during the year, molasses grass planted with corn and sorghum cut massive pest devastation to those crops by 95% and thus offered a promising alternative to chemical pesticides.
  Knowledge of the ways that plants and animals can cooperate advanced
 with the discovery, in mangrove trees in Belize, of the first known symbiosis between sponges and trees. Large sponges were found attached to the exposed roots of the trees, with both parties benefiting. Roots with attached sponges were almost four times the size of roots without sponges, and the attached sponges grew faster, perhaps by feeding off nutrients drawn up by the roots.
  Some root symbioses had enormous potential for improving crop yields. Legume plants are nourished by root-dwelling Rhizobium bacteria that take nitrogen from the air and turn it into nitrate compounds on which the roots feed. For decades a holy grail of crop-plant research had been to find a way to feed other crops in the same manner to boost their growth, and during the year plant scientists found such promise in rice. One group of researchers
 uncovered a species of Rhizobium growing symbiotically in rice plant roots, and a second group discovered previously unknown nitrogen-fixing bacteria of the genus Azoarcus that can colonize rice plants. The finds opened up enormous possibilities for reducing the amount of chemical fertilizers currently used in rice farming. PAUL SIMONS

\11 Mushrooms are of two grps MASTIGOMYCOTA and AMASTIGO- MYCOTA, the latter in which all edible shrooms are found. Fungi have no roots, leaves, flowers, or seeds. They are rich in zink. Never wash mushrooms. 

mushroom poisoning also called TOADSTOOL POISONING, toxic, sometimes fatal, effect of eating poisonous mushrooms (toadstools). There are some 70 to 80 species of mushrooms that are poisonous to humans; many of them contain toxic alkaloids (muscarine, agaricine, phalline).
 Among the mushrooms that most commonly cause poisoning are Amanita muscaria, A. phalloides, and the four white Amanita species called destroying angels. The ingestion of A. muscaria (fly agaric), which contains muscarine and other toxic alkaloids, is soon followed by nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, excessive salivation, perspiration, watering of the eyes, slowed and difficult breathing, dilated pupils, confusion, and excitability. Illness usually begins within a few hours after eating the mushrooms, and recovery usually occurs within 12 hours.

A. phalloides, the death cap, or death cup, is far deadlier than the muscarine type; it contains heat-stable peptide toxins, phalloidin and two amanitins, that damage cells throughout the body. Within 6 to 12 hours after eating the mushrooms, violent abdominal pain, vomiting, and bloody diarrhea appear, causing rapid loss of fluid from the tissues and intense thirst. Signs of severe involvement of the liver, kidneys, and central nervous system soon appear; these effects include a decrease in urinary output and a lowering of blood sugar. This condition leads to coma, which, in more than 50 percent of the incidents, results in death. The species Gyromitra (Helvella) esculenta contains a toxin that is ordinarily removed during cooking, but a few persons are highly susceptible to it. The chemical nature of the toxin has not been determined, but it is a source of monomethylhydrazine, which affects the central nervous system and induces hemolytic jaundice.
 Some victims of severe Amanita poisoning have been successfully treated with a combination of thioctic acid, glucose, and penicillin or by passing the blood through a charcoal filter. Prevention rests upon the avoidance of ingestion of any wild mushrooms not positively identified as edible by a competent authority

The entire plant of Mushroom, destroying angel raw or cooked is poisonous due to its complex polypeptides amanitin. Symptoms of sudden and severe abdoninal pain and possibly circulatory failure may not appear for 6-24 hours. Coma and death may occur in 48 hours. Recovery may take a month with permanent liver, kidney, and heart damage. mortality is high. Only experts can identify non-poisonous mushrooms

Amanta muscaria - psilocin and psilocybin hallucinogenic principles contained in certain mushrooms (notably two Mexican species, Psilocybe mexicana and Stropharia cubensis).
 Hallucinogenic mushrooms used in religious ceremonies by the Indians of Mexico were considered sacred and were called "god's flesh" by the Aztecs. In the 1950s the active principles psilocin and psilocybin were isolated from the Mexican mushrooms. They are not used in modern medicine. Chemically, psilocin and psilocybin are indole hallucinogens that block the action of serotonin (the indole amine transmitter of nerve impulses) in brain tissue. Psilocybin differs from psilocin in having a phosphate group attached to the molecule at the oxygen atom. Psilocin and psilocybin produce experiences similar to those produced by mescaline and LSD. They act within 20 to 30 minutes, and the duration of action is about four hours.
 See Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World: An Identification Guide by Paul Stamets, Ten Speed Press, 1996. Tel: 360-426-9292, 9377 fax.
 Stamets, P. PSILOCYBIN MUSHROOMS OF THE WORLD. Wasson, G. SOMA, THE DIVINE MUSHROOM OF IMMORTALITY. 1968

\12 WEEDS

What is a Weed? Generally, the term weed is used to describe any plant that is unwanted and grows or spreads aggressively. The term exotic weed describes an invasive unwanted non-native plant. Terms such as invasive weed or noxious weed are used somewhat interchangeably to refer to weeds that infest large areas or cause economic and ecological damage to an area. The term "noxious" weed has legal ramifications in some states that maintain official lists of noxious weeds. What is considered a weed in one area may not be a weed in another.

The issue of defining "weeds" and "invasive plant species" is constantly being considered. There are those who would prefer to include all "exotic" or "alien" plants within the "invasive" bracket, though in practice the majority of scientists are not able to concern themselves with all the plants that this would include. The term "weeds" is generally better defined, although only more recently has it been associated with invasive plants. 

There are no obvious, clear rules when attempting to classify these plants, especially as a plant species may be invasive in one environment and yet endangered in its indigenous habitat, or alternatively a plant might still be invasive to its indigenous habitat. Likewise, one person's weed may be another's rare flowering plant, or perhaps even provide the habitat for a biological control agent. There are many permutations. 

\13 Index of Weeds Sorted by BOTANICAL names
 Aquatic Weeds
 Alternanthera philoxeroides alligator weed Egeria densa egeria (oxygen weed) Eichornia crassipes water hyacinth Lagarosiphon major lagarosiphon, South African oxygen weed Nymphaea spp. water lily Nymphoides geminata entire marshwort Nymphoides peltata fringed water lily Pistia stratiodes water lettuce Sagittaria graminea ssp platyphylla sagittaria Salvinia molesta salvinia (kariba weed) Spartina spp. spartina (cord grass) Zizania latifolia Manchurian wild rice 

The rest of the pest Acacia spp. wattle (leaves entire) Acacia spp. wattle (leaves pinnate) Acacia verticillatum prickly Moses Acmena smithii monkey apple Agapanthus praecox agapanthus Agave americana century plant Ageratina adenophora Mexican devil Ageratina riparia mist flower Alocasia brasiliensis elephant's ear Anredera cordifolia Madeira vine Araujia sericifera moth plant Arundo donax giant reed Asparagus asparagoides smilax Asparagus densiflorus bushy asparagus Asparagus scandens climbing asparagus Asparagus setaceus asparagus fern Bartlettina sordida bartlettina Brugmansia candida angel's trumpet Carduus nutans nodding thistle Casuarina glauca Casuarina Cestrum parqui green cestrum Cestrum spp. cestrum Chrysanthemoides monilifera bone-seed Clematis vitalba old man's beard Cobaea scandens cathedral bells Conium maculatum hemlock Cortaderia jubata purple pampas grass Cortaderia selloana pampas grass Cotoneaster glaucophyllus cotoneaster Crocosmia X crocosmiiflora montbretia Cytisus scoparius broom Dipogon lignosus mile-a-minute Elaeagnus X reflexa elaeagnus Erica lusitanica Spanish heath Erigeron karvinskianus Mexican daisy Eriobotrya japonica loquat Eucalyptus spp. gum Euonymus japonicus Japanese spindle tree Ficus pumila climbing fig Ficus rubiginosa Port Jackson fig Glyceria maxima reed sweet grass Gymnocoronis spilanthoides Senegal tea Hakea gibbosa downy hakea Hakea salicifolia willow-leaved hakea Hakea sericea needlebush (prickly hakea) Hedera helix ssp. helix ivy Hedychium flavescens yellow ginger Hedychium gardnerianum Kahili ginger Homeria collina Cape tulip Hypericum androsaemum tutsan Impatiens sodenii shrub balsam Ipomoea indica blue morning glory Jasminum polyanthum jasmine Juncus acutus sharp rush Lantana camara var. aculeata lantana Lathyrus latifolius everlasting pea Leycesteria formosa Himalayan honeysuckle Ligustrum lucidum tree privet Ligustrum sinense Chinese privet Lonicera japonica Japanese honeysuckle Lycium ferocissimum boxthorn Melianthus major Cape honey flower Nephrolepis cordifolia tuber ladder fern Olea europaea subsp. africana olive Oxylobium lanceolatum oxylobium Pandorea pandorana wonga wonga vine Paraserianthes lophantha brush wattle Passiflora caerulea blue passion flower Passiflora mollissima & P. mixta banana passionfruit Pennisetum clandestinum Kikuyu grass Pennisetum macrourum African feather grass Phyllostachys spp. bamboo Physalis peruviana cape gooseberry Phytolacca octandra inkweed Pinus spp. pine Plectranthus ciliatus plectranthus Plectranthus ecklonii blue spur flower Podranea ricasoliana Port St John creeper Polygala myrtifolia sweet pea shrub Polygonum capitatum pink-head knotweed Psidium cattleianum purple guava Psoralea pinnata dally pine Rhamnus alaternus evergreen buckthorn Rubus fruticosus agg. blackberry Rumex sagittatus climbing dock Salix cinerea grey willow Salix spp. willow Selaginella kraussiana selaginella Senecio angulatus Cape ivy Senecio mikanioides German ivy Senecio petasitis velvet groundsel Silybum marianum variegated thistle Solanum jasminoides potato vine Solanum linnaeanum apple of Sodom Solanum marginatum white-edged nightshade Solanum mauritianum woolly nightshade Solanum pseudocapsicum Jerusalem cherry Sorghum halepense Johnson grass Stenotaphrum secundatum buffalo grass Stipa neesiana Chilean needle grass Stipa trichotoma nassella tussock Tecomaria capensis Cape honeysuckle Tradescantia fluminensis wandering Jew Tropaeolum majus nasturtium (garden nasturtium) Ulex europaeus gorse Vinca major periwinkle Watsonia bulbillifera bulbil watsonia Xanthium spinosum Bathurst bur Zantedeschia aethiopica arum lily 

Weeds by Common Name A achochilla archucha Aromo ataco espinado B balsam apple balsam pear balsamina batatilla blanca bejuco peludo Binorama bledo espinoso blero borlitas borraja de la tierra boton de cadete C cadillo chisaca cambara de espinho canchalagua carcilla cardo amarillo cardo santo
 cariaquillo caruru Castor Bean cerasee bush clary cola de alacrán consumption weed Coral Vine cordao de frade cordon de fraile Corona de cristo cotorrera crista de galo cuasquito cunde amor cupids paint E erisipelas plant F five-fingered morningglory flor de alacrán floras paintbrush G goatweed
 H heliotropo heliotropo silvestre herba de alacrán herbe a femme Huisache huisquilite huye que te cojo L lantana largatillo leche-leche lechosa lion's ear M Mamoeiro Mamona melao de Sao Caetano mercolina Mexican pricklepoppy molinillo
 P Pela pepinillo pico de zope pincel prickly poppy Q quina de pasto R rabo de alacrán de playa red tasselflower red-flowered sage Ricino rubim de bolas S scorpion weed serralha mirim shaving brush spiny amaranth spurge
 T tridax turnsoles W white clary white sage wild clary wild sage Y yerba golondrina yerba socialista yuyo macho


\14 List of poisonous plants

Aconite  Apple (Balsam)  Apple (Bitter)  Baneberry  Bloodroot  Bryony, Black  Bryony, European White  Bryony, White  Cabbage Tree  Calabar Bean  Calotropis Cherry Laurel  Clematis  Coca, Bolivian  Cocculus, Indicus  Dropwort, Hemlock Water  Foxglove  Gelsemium  Hellebore, Black  Hellebore, False  Hellebore, Green  Hellebore, White Hemlock  Hemlock, Water  Hemp, Indian  Ignatius Beans  Ivy, Poison  Laburnum  Laurel, Mountain  Lovage, Water  Mescal Buttons  Nightshade, Black  Nightshade, Deadly Nux Vomica  Paris, Herb  Poppy, White  Saffron, Meadow  Spurges  Stavesacre  Strophanthus  Thornapple  Wake Robin, American  Yew 

http://botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/poison.html  - 2/2001

--- Common Poisonous House Plants 

Amaryllis Autumn Crocus Azalea Balsam Pear Bird of Paradise Boxwood Caladium Castor Bean Chalice Vine Coral Plant Daffodil Datura (berries only) Dieffenbachia Elephants's Ear Hyacinth Hydrangea Japanese Yew Java Beans Lantana Lily-of-the-Valley Narcissus Nightshade (Deadly, Black, Garden or Woody Nightshade) Eggplant (all except fruit) Oleander Philodendron Rhododendron Yam Bean

-- Common Poisonous Outdoor Plants 

American Yew Baneberry Bittersweet Nightshade Black Locust Bloodroot Buckthorn Buttercup Calla Lily Cherry Tree Christmas Candle Clematis Cowslip Daphne English Holly English Yew Golden Chain or Laburnum Henbane Hemlock Honey Locust Horse Chestnut Indian Turnip Iris Jimsonweed Larkspur Locoweed Lords and Ladies May Apple Mistletoe Monkshood Morning Glory Mountain Laurel Nutmeg Pokeweed Rhubarb Rosary Peas Snowdrop Snowflake Sweet Pea Tobacco Water Hemlock Western Yew

Matthew M. Vriends, PhD  http://www.concentric.net/~conure/plants.shtml

--- Toxic Plant List  Champaign County Humane Society  http://www.cuhumane.org/topics/toxic.html

Alocasia  Amaryllis, esp. bulb  Anemone  Angel's trumpet  Almond  Arrow grasses - Leaves  Arrowhead vine  Asparagus Fern  Atropa belladonna  Autumn Crocus - Bulbs  Avocado - Leaves and stems  Azalea  Balsam Pear  Baneberry  Belladonna  Bird of paradise  Bittersweet-leaves, unripe fruit,  Black Nightshade - Berries  Black-eyed Susan-  Black locust  Bleeding heart  Boston Ivy  Box elder - Leaves and twigs  Buckeye - All parts  Bunchberry  Buttercup  Caladium  Calla lilly - Bulbs  Castor bean - Seeds  Cherry - Seeds  Chinaberry  Chokecherry - Bark and seeds  Chrysanthemum  Collodium  Coriaria  Creeping Fig  Crown of Thorns  Daffodil - esp. bulb  Deadly nightshade  Delphinium  Dieffenbachia  Drunk Cane  Dumbcane Dutchman's Breeches  Eggplant-Green growth and sprouts  Elephant's Ears  Elderberry  English Ivy - Berries and leaves  Euonymus  Ficus - Leaves  Four-o-clocks,  Foxglove  Goldenchain tree - Beanlike pods,  Ground cherry  Henbane  Holly  Honeysuckle  Horse chestnut  Hyacinth - Bulbs  Hydrangea  Iris  Ivy  Japanese Plum  Jasmine  Jerusalem Cherry - esp.berries  Jimsonweed  Lantana - Unripe blackish berries  Larkspur  Laurels  Lilly of the valley  Locoweed  Lupine  Marijuana  Mayapple  Mescal bean - Seeds.  Mistletoe - esp. berries  Mock Orange  Monkey pod  Monkshood  Morning glory-Most parts  Mountain Laurel  Mushrooms  Nightshade  Nutmeg  Nux Vomica  Oleander  Pothos  Peach pits  Peony - Roots  Periwinkle -Most parts  Peyote - Buttons  Philodendron Leaves,stems and stalks  Pigweed  Poison Hemlock  Poke Weed  Potato - Greens and sprouts  Pot Mum - green growth  Precatory beans - Seeds  Rhododendron  Rhubarb - Leaf blade  Rosary Pea - Seeds  Skunk Cabbage.  Snowdrop - Bulbs  Snow-on-the-mountain  Soapberry  Spurges  Thorn apple  Tobacco - All parts  Tomato - Vine and all  Trumpet Vine  Tulip - Esp.the bulb  Umbrella Plant  Water Hemlock - Esp. tubers  Walnut - Hulls  Weeping Fig  Wild Cherry  Wisteria - Seeds  Yellow jasmine  Yew 


\15 Cat's claw

Rash Remedy. It's sold by the roadside in Peru and other South American countries, where it's been used for ages to treat arthritis and other inflammations. Now this little known herb, cat's claw, has made its way to U.S. health-food stores in supplement form. And new scientific research proves it is an effective anti-inflammatory.  "Everything from skin rashes to asthma and arthritis may benefit from it," says Albany Medical College researcher Mark J. S. Miller. "It may even work after a sunburn to prevent skin cancer long term." 

Cat's claw is similar to cortisone in that it prevents DNA-leeching proteins from replicating (the mechanism that causes inflammation and that may be involved in the development of skin cancer). But unlike cortisone, it doesn't have any side effects. Effective dosage: 600 to 1000 mg twice daily.

Its root and bark are used to boost the immune system. Cat's Claw: Medicinal Properties Of This Amazon Vine by Phillip N. Steinberg, C.N. From the rainforests of the Peruvian Amazon comes a remarkable "new" herb known commonly in English as cat's claw or in Spanish as Una de Gato. According to Ramon Ferreyra, Ph.D., a Harvard-educated botanist and professor at San Marcos University in Lima, Peru, there are twelve different herbs known in Peru as Una de Gato. Within the last year and a half, one of these twelve has captured the interest of both the natural products industry and alternative practitioners throughout the United States. This herb is scientifically known as Uncaria tomentosa. Traditional Use And Harvesting Practices: Uncaria tomentosa is a woody vine that can grow to more than 100 feet in length as it winds itself upward around trees in the highlands of the Peruvian rainforests. Hooks like thorns are located on the stems of the leaves, which resemble the claws of a cat; hence the name cat's claw.
  For hundreds of years the indigenous people of Peru have used both the inner bark and root of this vine to prepare a decoction to treat a variety of illnesses. Recently, however, the Peruvian government passed legislation banning use of the root, proclaiming that the inner bark contains all the medicinal properties. The government action was taken in part to protect the species, because the world-wide demand for the herb has grown dramatically over the last several years.
  Reputable companies harvest Uncaria tomentosa by chopping the vine approximately three feet above the ground, leaving the root undisturbed. The inner bark is then removed and offered for sale both in Peru and on the international market. This harvesting practice is designed to ensure that the vine will grow back, reach maturity and again be ready for harvesting in approximately four years.
  Pharmacies in Peru offer Una de Gato in tea, capsule and extract forms. Labels written in Spanish state that "Una de Gato is a medicinal herb native to the central jungles of Peru whose curative properties are almost unlimited." Its clinical applications, labels say, have included use in gastritis, ulcers, cancer, arthritis, rheumatism, irregularities of the female cycle and acne. It has also been used for treatment of organic depression. In external application, it is often applied for the treatment of wounds, fungus, fistulas and hemorrhoids.
  In a recent article in the journal The Business of Herbs, James A. Duke, Ph.D., economic botanist for the U.S. Department of Agriculture, speaks about cat's claw's ability to help diabetics.1 He also mentions an account of two Peruvians reportedly cured of terminal cancer as a result of consuming the herb in tea form. Other healings are reported in Nicole Maxwell's book Witch Doctor's Apprentice published in 1990.2 According to Ferreyra, Uncaria tomentosa is also used in Peru to treat prostate problems.
  Scientific Studies And Present-Day Research
 In 1974 Klaus Keplinger, an Austrian scientist, began conducting extensive research on cat's claw. As a result, he and his colleagues were able to obtain two U.S. patents, one in 1989 and another in 1990, for isolating some of the herb's main components--known as oxindole alkaloids.
  Of the six alkaloids isolated by Keplinger and his associates, four have been found in laboratory testing to have a pronounced en-hancement effect on the ability of certain white blood cells to perform phagocytosis, the process of engulfing potentially harmful microorganisms and other substances. These four alkaloids are known as isopteropodine, pteropodine, isomitraphylline, and isorynchophylline.3,4,5 The two remaining alkaloids are known as mitraphylline and rynchophylline.
  Rynchophylline is also found in another Uncaria species native to the far east, and it has been studied at the Shanghai College of Traditional Chinese Medicine. According to the Chinese findings, this alkaloid displays an ability to inhibit platelet aggregation and thrombosis. This suggests that ryncho-phylline may be useful in the prevention of stroke and in reducing the risk of heart attack by lowering blood pressure, increasing circulation and inhibiting both the formation of plaque on the arterial walls and the formation of blood clots in the vessels of the brain, heart and arteries.6
  On Nov. 28, 1988, and June 17, 1993, articles about Uncaria tomentosa appeared in El Comercio, a major metropolitan newspaper in Lima. The first article stated that Uncaria tomentosa had been proven to be effective in the treatment of allergies and neurobronchitis. The article then detailed Keplinger's success in using Uncaria tomentosa to treat genital herpes and herpes zoster and also in trials with seven AIDS patients who displayed various progressions of the disease. According to the article, Keplinger was not able to help two of these patients using Una de Gato; however, the well-being of the other five improved to such an extent that their symptoms disappeared.7
  The second article described how Immodel, a laboratory in Austria under Keplinger's direction, is using a medicine extracted from Uncaria tomentosa along with AZT to impede the multiplication of the HIV virus in the blood, to activate the cells of the immune system and to stop the development of cancerous cells. Immodel has commercialized this medicine under the name "Krallendorn" and has been using it successfully for the past six years to treat people infected with the AIDS virus. According to Immodel, very few patients not showing symptoms of the disease have progressed from being HIV positive to having AIDS symptoms. Patients who had the first symptoms of AIDS showed an improvement in blood analysis and a disappearance of clinical symptoms within the first year.
  The article also mentioned that Krallendorn has been effective in decreasing the unpleasant side effects of both AZT and radiation cancer therapy.8
  Additional international studies have determined that Uncaria tomentosa contains a wealth of other potentially beneficial phytochemicals including: quinovic acid glycosides,9,10 triterpines,11,12 polyphenols, proanthocyanidins13 and plant sterols.14 The presence of these compounds may further explain the adaptogen, anti-oxidant, anti-microbial, anti-tumor and anti-inflammatory properties attributed to the herb.15,16
  Experience Of Physicians In The United States
  In the United States, Brent W. Davis, D.C., has been working with Uncaria tomentosa since 1988. In his article titled "A New World Class Herb For A.K. Practice" he refers to Uncaria tomentosa as "the opener of the way" because it seems to have the ability to cleanse the entire intestinal track and break through severe intestinal maladies. In working with approximately 150 patients over a four-year period, Davis observed that cat's claw is an effective treatment for parasites, inflammatory bowel disease and intestinal flora imbalance (dysbiosis). He also mentions results described at a 1988 international congress on traditional medicines held in Lima, where Uncaria tomentosa was discussed by medical doctors as one of a number of different herbs used to consistently cure cancer and other serious disorders.15
  In Healthy and Natural Journal (Oct. 1994), Donna Schwontkowski, D.C., asserts that Uncaria tomentosa is the most powerful immune-enhancing herb of all herbs native to the Amazon. In an article titled "Herbal Treasures from the Amazon," she reports that preliminary studies suggest that the herb has an ability to stop viral infections in early stages, help patients who are chemically sensitive, enhance emotional stability even in the midst of extreme stress, fight infections in AIDS patients and decrease the visible size of some skin tumors and cysts within two weeks. Schwontkowski also reports that Uncaria tomentosa has been linked with the remission of brain and other tumors as well as providing relief from the side-effects of chemotherapy.17
  Satya Ambrose, N.D., co-founder of the Oregon College of Oriental Medicine, recently began using Uncaria tomentosa with some of her patients. She is seeing significant improvement in patients suffering from Crohn's disease, ulcers, asthma, arthritis, iritis, shingles, dysbiosis and chronic fatigue syndrome. Ambrose also states that she has been able to eliminate the use of many Chinese herbs because Uncaria tomentosa, in many instances, seems to be more effective. She has observed that cat's claw seems to enhance overall immunity while increasing stamina and energy in patients who suffer from physical and mental exhaustion due to an overactive or stressful lifestyle.
  Much of what Ambrose, Keplinger and others claim about the medicinal properties of Uncaria tomentosa is based on anecdotal evidence. However, there is certainly enough of this evidence, added to Peruvian traditions, to warrant further investigation by the scientific community. NSN
  Phillip N. Steinberg, C.N., a graduate of The Nutritionists Institute of America, has been researching and disseminating information on Uncaria tomentosa for two years and recently began publishing his own bimonthly newsletter, Cat's Claw News, in Washington, Mo.
  Cat's Claw: Medicinal Properties Of This Amazon Vine by Phillip N. Steinberg, C.N.

From the rainforests of the Peruvian Amazon comes a remarkable "new" herb known commonly in English as cat's claw or in Spanish as Una de Gato. According to Ramon Ferreyra, Ph.D., a Harvard-educated botanist and professor at San Marcos University in Lima, Peru, there are twelve different herbs known in Peru as Una de Gato.

Within the last year and a half, one of these twelve has captured the interest of both the natural products industry and alternative practitioners throughout the United States. This herb is scientifically known as Uncaria tomentosa.

Traditional Use And Harvesting Practices

Uncaria tomentosa is a woody vine that can grow to more than 100 feet in length as it winds itself upward around trees in the highlands of the Peruvian rainforests. Hooks like thorns are located on the stems of the leaves, which resemble the claws of a cat; hence the name cat's claw.

For hundreds of years the indigenous people of Peru have used both the inner bark and root of this vine to prepare a decoction to treat a variety of illnesses. Recently, however, the Peruvian government passed legislation banning use of the root, proclaiming that the inner bark contains all the medicinal properties. The government action was taken in part to protect the species, because the world-wide demand for the herb has grown dramatically over the last several years.

Reputable companies harvest Uncaria tomentosa by chopping the vine approximately three feet above the ground, leaving the root undisturbed. The inner bark is then removed and offered for sale both in Peru and on the international market. This harvesting practice is designed to ensure that the vine will grow back, reach maturity and again be ready for harvesting in approximately four years.

Pharmacies in Peru offer Una de Gato in tea, capsule and extract forms. Labels written in Spanish state that "Una de Gato is a medicinal herb native to the central jungles of Peru whose curative properties are almost unlimited." Its clinical applications, labels say, have included use in gastritis, ulcers, cancer, arthritis, rheumatism, irregularities of the female cycle and acne. It has also been used for treatment of organic depression. In external application, it is often applied for the treatment of wounds, fungus, fistulas and hemorrhoids.

In a recent article in the journal The Business of Herbs, James A. Duke, Ph.D., economic botanist for the U.S. Department of Agriculture, speaks about cat's claw's ability to help diabetics.1 He also mentions an account of two Peruvians reportedly cured of terminal cancer as a result of consuming the herb in tea form. Other healings are reported in Nicole Maxwell's book Witch Doctor's Apprentice published in 1990.2 According to Ferreyra, Uncaria tomentosa is also used in Peru to treat prostate problems.

Scientific Studies And Present-Day Research

In 1974 Klaus Keplinger, an Austrian scientist, began conducting extensive research on cat's claw. As a result, he and his colleagues were able to obtain two U.S. patents, one in 1989 and another in 1990, for isolating some of the herb's main components--known as oxindole alkaloids.

Of the six alkaloids isolated by Keplinger and his associates, four have been found in laboratory testing to have a pronounced en-hancement effect on the ability of certain white blood cells to perform phagocytosis, the process of engulfing potentially harmful microorganisms and other substances. These four alkaloids are known as isopteropodine, pteropodine, isomitraphylline, and isorynchophylline.3,4,5 The two remaining alkaloids are known as mitraphylline and rynchophylline.

Rynchophylline is also found in another Uncaria species native to the far east, and it has been studied at the Shanghai College of Traditional Chinese Medicine. According to the Chinese findings, this alkaloid displays an ability to inhibit platelet aggregation and thrombosis. This suggests that ryncho-phylline may be useful in the prevention of stroke and in reducing the risk of heart attack by lowering blood pressure, increasing circulation and inhibiting both the formation of plaque on the arterial walls and the formation of blood clots in the vessels of the brain, heart and arteries.6

On Nov. 28, 1988, and June 17, 1993, articles about Uncaria tomentosa appeared in El Comercio, a major metropolitan newspaper in Lima. The first article stated that Uncaria tomentosa had been proven to be effective in the treatment of allergies and neurobronchitis. The article then detailed Keplinger's success in using Uncaria tomentosa to treat genital herpes and herpes zoster and also in trials with seven AIDS patients who displayed various progressions of the disease. According to the article, Keplinger was not able to help two of these patients using Una de Gato; however, the well-being of the other five improved to such an extent that their symptoms disappeared.7

The second article described how Immodel, a laboratory in Austria under Keplinger's direction, is using a medicine extracted from Uncaria tomentosa along with AZT to impede the multiplication of the HIV virus in the blood, to activate the cells of the immune system and to stop the development of cancerous cells. Immodel has commercialized this medicine under the name "Krallendorn" and has been using it successfully for the past six years to treat people infected with the AIDS virus. According to Immodel, very few patients not showing symptoms of the disease have progressed from being HIV positive to having AIDS symptoms. Patients who had the first symptoms of AIDS showed an improvement in blood analysis and a disappearance of clinical symptoms within the first year.

The article also mentioned that Krallendorn has been effective in decreasing the unpleasant side effects of both AZT and radiation cancer therapy.8

Additional international studies have determined that Uncaria tomentosa contains a wealth of other potentially beneficial phytochemicals including: quinovic acid glycosides,9,10 triterpines,11,12 polyphenols, proanthocyanidins13 and plant sterols.14 The presence of these compounds may further explain the adaptogen, anti-oxidant, anti-microbial, anti-tumor and anti-inflammatory properties attributed to the herb.15,16

Experience Of Physicians In The United States

In the US, Brent W. Davis, D.C., has been working with Uncaria tomentosa since 1988. In his article titled "A New World Class Herb For A.K. Practice" he refers to Uncaria tomentosa as "the opener of the way" because it seems to have the ability to cleanse the entire intestinal track and break through severe intestinal maladies. In working with approximately 150 patients over a four-year period, Davis observed that cat's claw is an effective treatment for parasites, inflammatory bowel disease and intestinal flora imbalance (dysbiosis). He also mentions results described at a 1988 international congress on traditional medicines held in Lima, where Uncaria tomentosa was discussed by medical doctors as one of a number of different herbs used to consistently cure cancer and other serious disorders.15

In Healthy and Natural Journal (Oct. 1994), Donna Schwontkowski, D.C., asserts that Uncaria tomentosa is the most powerful immune-enhancing herb of all herbs native to the Amazon. In an article titled "Herbal Treasures from the Amazon," she reports that preliminary studies suggest that the herb has an ability to stop viral infections in early stages, help patients who are chemically sensitive, enhance emotional stability even in the midst of extreme stress, fight infections in AIDS patients and decrease the visible size of some skin tumors and cysts within two weeks. Schwontkowski also reports that Uncaria tomentosa has been linked with the remission of brain and other tumors as well as providing relief from the side-effects of chemotherapy.

Satya Ambrose, N.D., co-founder of the Oregon College of Oriental Medicine, recently began using Uncaria tomentosa with some of her patients. She is seeing significant improvement in patients suffering from Crohn's disease, ulcers, asthma, arthritis, iritis, shingles, dysbiosis and chronic fatigue syndrome. Ambrose also states that she has been able to eliminate the use of many Chinese herbs because Uncaria tomentosa, in many instances, seems to be more effective. She has observed that cat's claw seems to enhance overall immunity while increasing stamina and energy in patients who suffer from physical and mental exhaustion due to an overactive or stressful lifestyle


\16 Camphor (Cinnamomum camphora)

Aromatic noted for moth repellants but also has many medicinal uses. Its wood resists termites.  Synonyms - Laurel Camphor. Gum Camphor. Part Used -Gum. Habitat: China, Japan, and adjacent parts of East Asia. Formosa official in the U.S.P. Dryobalanops aromatica is indigenous to Borneo and Sumatra. Camphor is a white crystalline substance, obtained from the tree Cinnamonum camphora, but the name has been given to various concrete odorous volatile products, found in different aromatic plants. The commercial Camphor comes only from C. camphora and Dryobalanops camphora (fam. Dipterocarpacaea). The first gives our official Camphor, the latter the Borneo Camphor, which is much valued in the East, but unknown in Europe and America. C. camphora is an evergreen tree looking not unlike our linden; it grows to a great size, is manybranched, flowers white, small and clustered, fruit a red berry much like cinnamon. While the tree grows in China, etc., it can be cultivated successfully in sub-tropical countries, such as India and Ceylon, and it will thrive in Egypt, Formosa, Madagascar, Canary Islands and southern parts of Europe, California, Florida, and also in Argentina. It grows so slowly that the return financially is a long investment. Some growers think that Camphor cannot be taken from the trees till they are fifty years old. In Japan and Formosa the drug comes from the root, trunk and branches of the tree by sublimation, but there is less injury done to the tree in the American plantations, as it is taken there from the leaves and twigs of the oldest trees. A Camphor oil exudes in the process of extracting Camphor, which is valued by the Chinese, used for medicinal purposes. Two substances are found in commerce under the name of oil of Camphor: one is the produce of C. cinnamonum, and is known as Formosa or Japanese oil of Camphor; the other as East Indian oil of Camphor, from the D. aromatica but this oil is not found in European or American trade. It is less volatile than the other, and has a distinctive odour; it is highly prized by the Chinese, who use it for embalming purposes and to scent soap. The Chinese attribute many virtues to it. It is mentioned by Marco Polo in the thirteenth century and Camoens in 1571, who called it the 'balsam of disease.' During the last few years large quantities have come into the American and European markets as Japanese oil; it varies in quality and colour from a thin watery oil to a thick black one.

It is imported in tin cans and varies greatly in the amount of Camphor it contains, some cans having had all the solid principle extracted before importation. The odour is peculiar, like sassafras and distinctly camphoraceous; this oil is said to be used in Japan for burning, making varnish and for Chinese inks, as a diluent for artists' colours; it has a capacity for dissolving resins that oil of Turps has not.
  The properties in the oil are much the same as in Camphor but it is more stimulant and very useful in complaints of stomach and bowels, in spasmodic cholera and flatulent colic. It is also used as a rubefacient and sedative liniment, and if diluted with Olive oil or soap is excel- lent for local rheumatism, sprains, bruises, & neuralgia.

There is an erroneous idea that Camphor acts as a preventive to infectious diseases. It is very acrid and in large doses very poisonous, and should be used cautiously in certain heart cases. It is a well-known preventive of moths and other insects, such as worms in wood; natural history cabinets are often made of it, the wood of the tree being occasionally imported to make cabinets for entomologists. 

The Dryobalanops oil of Camphor is said to be found in trees too young to produce Camphor, and is said to be the first stage of the development of Camphor, as it is found in the cavities of the trunk, which later on become filled with Camphor. Its chief constituent is an oil called Borneene. The D. aromatica tree, found in Sumatra and Borneo, grows to an enormous height, often over 100 feet, and trunk 6 or 7 feet in diameter.

The Camphor of the older trees exists in concrete masses, in longitudinal cavities, in the heart of the tree, 1 1/2 feet long at certain distances apart. The only way of finding out if Camphor has formed in the tree is by incision. This Camphor is chiefly used for funeral rites, and any that is exported is bought by the Chinese at a high price, as they use it for embalming, it being less volatile than ordinary Camphor. 

Another Camphor called N'gai, obtained from the Blumea Balcamferi (Compositae), differs chemically from the Borneo species, being levogyrate, and is converted by boiling nitric acid, to a substance considered identical with stearoptene of Chrysanthemum parthenium. This plant grows freely in the author's garden, and is known in Great Britain as Double-flowered Bush Fever-Few.

Medicinal Action and Uses: Camphor has a strong, penetrating, fragrant odour, a bitter, pungent taste, and is slightly cold to the touch like menthol leaves; locally it is an irritant, numbs the peripheral sensory nerves, and is slightly antiseptic; it is not readily absorbed by the mucous membrane, but is easily absorbed by the subcu- taneous tissue- it combines in the body with glucuronic acid, and in this condition is voided by the urine. 

Experiments on frogs show a depressant action to the spinal column, no motor disturbance, but a slow increasing paralysis; in mankind it causes convulsions, from the effect it has on the motor tract of the brain; it stimulates the intellectual centres and prevents narcotic drugs taking effect, but in cases of nervous excitement it has a soothing and quieting result. 

Authorities vary as to its effect on blood pressure; some think it raises it, others take an opposite view; but it has been proved valuable as an excitant in cases of heart failure, whether due to diseases or as a result of infectious fevers, such as typhoid and pneumonia, not only in the latter case as a stimulant to circulation, but as preventing the growth of pneumococci. 

Camphor is used in medicine internally for its calming influence in hysteria, nervousness and neuralgia, and for serious diarrhoea, and externally as a counter-irritant in rheumatisms, sprains bronchitis, and in inflammatory conditions, and sometimes in conjunction with menthol and phenol for heart failure; it is often given hypodermi- cally.

In nervous diseases it may be given in substance or in capsules or in spirit; Its great value is in colds, chills, and in all inflammatory complaints; it relieves irritation of the sexual organs